Chapter 9-Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource

Chapter 9: Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource

• Preparation and performance of motor skills are greatly influenced by our limited ability to select and attend to information.

Relevant Questions in the Study of Attention

• Why can we sometimes perform multiple activities simultaneously, but not always?

• How do we choose specific environmental cues from the multitude available?

Examples of Attention

• Studying for an exam: Concentrating on learning material amidst distractions.

• Radio while driving: Processing auditory information while maintaining focus on the road.

• Cell phone use while driving: Diverting attention from driving tasks to communication.

• Therapist in a clinic: Managing patient interactions and treatment simultaneously.

• Coach during practice: Observing and directing multiple athletes at once.

Definitions of Attention

• Engagement in cognitive activities: Involves perceptual, cognitive, and motor actions before, during, and after tasks.

• Focalization and limitation: Attention entails narrowing down information-processing resources.

• Distinction in attention engagement: Can occur consciously or non-consciously.

Conscious Attention

• Conscious engagement: Actively involved in attention activities and can describe them.

• Types of Conscious Attention:

  • Perceptual attention: "I am looking at ..." (visual focus)

  • Cognitive attention: "I am thinking about ..."

  • Motor attention: "I am moving ..."

Non-Conscious Attention

• Non-conscious engagement: Difficulty verbalizing attention activities; indicated by performance evidence.

• Implicit knowledge: Represents automaticity—skills performed without conscious thought.

Early Attention Theory Models

• Bottleneck theory: A theoretical model suggesting that excess information enters the system, and filtering occurs to minimize unnecessary stimuli.

• Process Flow: Environmental stimuli → Response selection → Preparation → Response.

Limited Attention Capacity

• Central Resource Theories: Propose a single attention supply store from which all activities draw attention resources.

• Key Factor: Limited attention capacity significantly impacts how many tasks can be performed simultaneously.

Central Resource Theories

• Capacity Views:

  • Fixed capacity: Attention capability remains constant.

  • Flexible capacity: Attention capacity can vary depending on the situation.

Kahneman’s Flexible Central Resource Theory of Attention

• Overview: A model of attention capacity featuring flexibility (p. 203).

• Arousal Level: A key determinant influencing available attention capacity; optimal performance occurs at an appropriate arousal level.

Arousal-Performance Relationship

• Graphical representation:

  • Arousal level vs. performance level illustrated with low and high extremes.

  • Optimal Arousal Level: Point at which maximum performance is achieved—referred to as "The Zone."

Kahneman's Model of Attention

• Components:

  • Enduring dispositions

  • Arousal

  • Available capacity

  • Momentary intentions

  • Allocation policy

  • Evaluation of capacity demands

Factors Influencing Attention Allocation

• Task demands: Specificity to the nature of the task being performed.

• Enduring dispositions: Involuntary attention allocations influenced by distractions or salient stimuli.

• Momentary intentions: Allocating attention intentionally based on current focus.

When Limited Attention Capacity is Advantageous in Skills

• Example: Situations where focusing on fewer activities enhances performance and minimizes errors.

Multiple Resource Theories

• Concept: Attention is not a single resource; it encompasses several mechanisms with specific capacities tailored to different skill components.

• Three Sources:

  • Input/output modalities (e.g., vision, hearing)

  • Stages of information processing (e.g., perception, memory encoding)

  • Codes of information processing (e.g., spatial, verbal)

• Implication: Competing tasks for the same resource diminish performance effectiveness.

Dual-Task Procedure to Assess Attention Demands

• Definition: An experimental setup where individuals engage in two simultaneous tasks to evaluate attention demands.

• Example:

  • Primary Task: Walking on a pathway.

  • Secondary Task: Engaging in conversation.

• Assessment goal: Maintain normal performance of the primary while analyzing the secondary's impact on attention.

Research Examples Using Dual-Task Procedure

Evidence for Attention Demand in Balance

• Study by Geurts & Mulder (1994) compared leg amputees with non-amputees during standing balance tasks.

• Findings: Amputees showed increased instability and errors in arithmetic tasks, while non-amputees maintained balance without changes.

Attention Demand in Skill Performance Parts

• Study by Prezuhy & Etnier (2001) on pitching horseshoes.

• Findings: Response times (RT) were longest at beginning and just before release, indicating higher attention demand during these phases.

Inattention and Change Blindness

• Concept: The failure to notice obvious events when focused on a specific task—just gazing at something does not guarantee awareness.

• Example: A driver focused on spotting cars might miss a motorcycle nearby.

Additional Attention Issues

• Width: Can be broad or narrow.

• Direction: Can be internal (thoughts, feelings) or external (environment).

• Switching: Adjusting focus from broad/external to narrow/external targets.

• Best focus: Generally, an external task-specific focus yields better outcomes.

Research on Cell Phone Use While Driving

• Findings from Strayer & Johnson (2001) indicate significant impairments while conversing on cell phones during simulated driving tasks.

• Results:

  • Missed traffic signals more frequently.

  • Longer response times than when not using a phone.

  • No significant differences in effect between handheld and hands-free use.

  • Compared to listening to audio, cell phone use resulted in more missed signals and slower responses.

Factors Influencing Accident Risk

• Demographics: No significant differences between genders; age not a contributing factor.

• Weather: Majority of accidents occurred under clear conditions, contradicting weather influence.

• Trip Timing: Most crashes happened within the first 10 minutes post-departure.

Legal Context of Cell Phone Use While Driving

• Emerging legal restrictions in various countries and some U.S. states regarding cell phone use while driving.

• Statistics: Cell phone usage while driving increases accident risk by 500%, comparable to impaired driving conditions.