Chapter 9-Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource
Chapter 9: Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource
Preparation and performance of motor skills are greatly influenced by our limited ability to select and attend to information.
Relevant Questions in the Study of Attention
Why can we sometimes perform multiple activities simultaneously, but not always?
How do we choose specific environmental cues from the multitude available?
Examples of Attention
Studying for an exam: Concentrating on learning material amidst distractions.
Radio while driving: Processing auditory information while maintaining focus on the road.
Cell phone use while driving: Diverting attention from driving tasks to communication.
Therapist in a clinic: Managing patient interactions and treatment simultaneously.
Coach during practice: Observing and directing multiple athletes at once.
Definitions of Attention
Engagement in cognitive activities: Involves perceptual, cognitive, and motor actions before, during, and after tasks.
Focalization and limitation: Attention entails narrowing down information-processing resources.
Distinction in attention engagement: Can occur consciously or non-consciously.
Conscious Attention
Conscious engagement: Actively involved in attention activities and can describe them.
Types of Conscious Attention:
Perceptual attention: "I am looking at ..." (visual focus)
Cognitive attention: "I am thinking about ..."
Motor attention: "I am moving ..."
Non-Conscious Attention
Non-conscious engagement: Difficulty verbalizing attention activities; indicated by performance evidence.
Implicit knowledge: Represents automaticity—skills performed without conscious thought.
Early Attention Theory Models
Bottleneck theory: A theoretical model suggesting that excess information enters the system, and filtering occurs to minimize unnecessary stimuli.
Process Flow: Environmental stimuli → Response selection → Preparation → Response.
Limited Attention Capacity
Central Resource Theories: Propose a single attention supply store from which all activities draw attention resources.
Key Factor: Limited attention capacity significantly impacts how many tasks can be performed simultaneously.
Central Resource Theories
Capacity Views:
Fixed capacity: Attention capability remains constant.
Flexible capacity: Attention capacity can vary depending on the situation.
Kahneman’s Flexible Central Resource Theory of Attention
Overview: A model of attention capacity featuring flexibility (p. 203).
Arousal Level: A key determinant influencing available attention capacity; optimal performance occurs at an appropriate arousal level.
Arousal-Performance Relationship
Graphical representation:
Arousal level vs. performance level illustrated with low and high extremes.
Optimal Arousal Level: Point at which maximum performance is achieved—referred to as "The Zone."
Kahneman's Model of Attention
Components:
Enduring dispositions
Arousal
Available capacity
Momentary intentions
Allocation policy
Evaluation of capacity demands
Factors Influencing Attention Allocation
Task demands: Specificity to the nature of the task being performed.
Enduring dispositions: Involuntary attention allocations influenced by distractions or salient stimuli.
Momentary intentions: Allocating attention intentionally based on current focus.
When Limited Attention Capacity is Advantageous in Skills
Example: Situations where focusing on fewer activities enhances performance and minimizes errors.
Multiple Resource Theories
Concept: Attention is not a single resource; it encompasses several mechanisms with specific capacities tailored to different skill components.
Three Sources:
Input/output modalities (e.g., vision, hearing)
Stages of information processing (e.g., perception, memory encoding)
Codes of information processing (e.g., spatial, verbal)
Implication: Competing tasks for the same resource diminish performance effectiveness.
Dual-Task Procedure to Assess Attention Demands
Definition: An experimental setup where individuals engage in two simultaneous tasks to evaluate attention demands.
Example:
Primary Task: Walking on a pathway.
Secondary Task: Engaging in conversation.
Assessment goal: Maintain normal performance of the primary while analyzing the secondary's impact on attention.
Research Examples Using Dual-Task Procedure
Evidence for Attention Demand in Balance
Study by Geurts & Mulder (1994) compared leg amputees with non-amputees during standing balance tasks.
Findings: Amputees showed increased instability and errors in arithmetic tasks, while non-amputees maintained balance without changes.
Attention Demand in Skill Performance Parts
Study by Prezuhy & Etnier (2001) on pitching horseshoes.
Findings: Response times (RT) were longest at beginning and just before release, indicating higher attention demand during these phases.
Inattention and Change Blindness
Concept: The failure to notice obvious events when focused on a specific task—just gazing at something does not guarantee awareness.
Example: A driver focused on spotting cars might miss a motorcycle nearby.
Additional Attention Issues
Width: Can be broad or narrow.
Direction: Can be internal (thoughts, feelings) or external (environment).
Switching: Adjusting focus from broad/external to narrow/external targets.
Best focus: Generally, an external task-specific focus yields better outcomes.
Research on Cell Phone Use While Driving
Findings from Strayer & Johnson (2001) indicate significant impairments while conversing on cell phones during simulated driving tasks.
Results:
Missed traffic signals more frequently.
Longer response times than when not using a phone.
No significant differences in effect between handheld and hands-free use.
Compared to listening to audio, cell phone use resulted in more missed signals and slower responses.
Factors Influencing Accident Risk
Demographics: No significant differences between genders; age not a contributing factor.
Weather: Majority of accidents occurred under clear conditions, contradicting weather influence.
Trip Timing: Most crashes happened within the first 10 minutes post-departure.
Legal Context of Cell Phone Use While Driving
Emerging legal restrictions in various countries and some U.S. states regarding cell phone use while driving.
Statistics: Cell phone usage while driving increases accident risk by 500%, comparable to impaired driving conditions.