Unit 2 Psy 210 Exam

PSY 210: Unit 2 Study Guide

Introducing I-O Psychology & Historical Overview

• How can we understand the “scientist-practitioner model,” and why is this model important to I-O psychology?

Scientist: theory and research

• Understand individual group and organizational behavior through research 

• Focus on generating knowledge 

Practitioner: Practice 

• Apply I/O psychology to organizations, externally or internally

• Consumer of and applier of knowledge

WHY IMPORTANT: Most adult waking hours are spent at work, work can provide meaning and identity, in addition to financial support. 

• What is the difference between “industrial” and “organizational” psychology? What are some types of topics that may act as examples of each “side” of I-O?

Industrial Psychology: 

• Recruitment, selection, training, performance, appraisal, promotion, transfer, termination 

Organizational Psychology: 

• Attitudes, fairness, motivation, stress, leadership, teams, broader aspects of organizational and work design 

• Historically, in what two primary settings did I-O psychology have its origins?

Helped with testing and placement for the Armer during WWI 

Adapted the Standford-Binet for large-group testing

• What is the difference between the Army Alpha and the Army Beta, and why were these testing methods considered innovative during their time?

Contests - The selection of people that would go off to war, context WORLD WAR 1, We have to determine where to place people into jobs, the walters came up with this. Army Alpha - multiple choice test, but not everyone was literate. Army Beta - all pictures, meant to assess those who were not literate. 

• Define concepts of scientific management and time and motion studies; who do we generally attribute as responsible for each of these concepts, and how do these concepts relate to a historical field-level focus on promoting worker efficiency?

Scientific Management: A movement based on principles developed by Frederick W. Taylor, who suggested that there was one best and most efficient way to perform various jobs, also known as “Taylorism”

• What are the Hawthorne studies? What was the primary conclusion of those studies, and how do those conclusions relate to what eventually became the Human Relations movement?

Hawthrone Studies: 1930s set of studies by Harvard researchers at Western Electric Company 

Interested in the relationship between light with employee morale and efficiency 

Hawthorne Effect: the alteration of behavior by subjects due to awareness of being observed 

Human Relations Movement: Conceptual shift toward increased focus on employee emotion and motivation 

Employee Selection

• What is the overall goal of employee selection processes?

GOAL → Identify the individuals amongst a pool of applicants who would be most likely to succeed in a given job role

• What is organizational attraction, and what role does the variable play within employee recruitment and selection?

Organizational attraction: applicants' overall evaluation of the appeal of working at that organization in that role

• What is a job analysis, and how does the method inform what characteristics employers should look for amongst their pool of applicants?

Job Analysis: Systematic study of a job or role to determine the activities, responsibilities, and attributes needed to perform required tasks successfully

Inform what qualities and characteristics employers should look for amongst their pool of applicants 

• What is meant by the acronym, “KSAO’s”? Define and provide an example of each element within the acronym. 

Knowledge: Collection of discrete, related facts and information about a particular domain 

Skill: Practices act 

Ability: Stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior 

“Other” Characteristics: Personality, interests, etc. 

• What are common methods used to assess candidate characteristics? 

Interviews (structured vs. unstructured)

Cognitive Ability Tests (generally, strongest, predictor of job performance)

Personality tests (can do vs. will do)

Work samples

• How might an employer evaluate whether their selection processes were effective?

Person Organization Fit: Alignment and compatibility in characteristics between an individual and their environment (in this case, the organization) 

• What are some ways that artificial intelligence may transform tasks associated with employee recruitment and selection? Generally, how fair do applicants consider the use of artificial intelligence to be in selecting employees, as compared to hiring processes conducted by humans only?

Disparate Treatment - Intentional discrimination based on protected group membership 

Disparate Impact - Inequality in group outcomes regardless of intention 

• Oddball Interview Questions

What was the purpose of this article?
The article examined how oddball interview questions influence job seekers' perceptions of an organization's personality and whether these perceptions affect organizational attraction.

What methods did the authors use to carry out their research?
The authors conducted a time-lagged, between-subjects online experiment where participants were exposed to different types of interview questions and then assessed their perceptions of the organization's personality and attractiveness.

What were the primary findings?
Organizations that used oddball interview questions were perceived as more innovative and stylish. However, these questions did not significantly increase overall organizational attraction and had no effect moderated by job seekers' personalities.

What is person-organization fit, and how does this concept relate to what was hypothesized within this study?
Person-organization fit refers to the alignment between an individual’s characteristics and an organization's values, culture, or personality. The study hypothesized that job seekers with certain personality traits (e.g., openness to experience) would be more attracted to organizations using oddball questions due to perceived innovativeness and style.

What does it mean for a variable to be a moderator? What variables were hypothesized to act as mediators/moderators within this study?
A moderator affects the strength or direction of the relationship between two variables. The study hypothesized that conscientiousness and openness to experience would moderate the effect of oddball questions on organizational attraction. Organizational personality traits (style and innovativeness) were tested as mediators between oddball questions and organizational attraction.

• Social Media & Selection

What are some potential benefits and risks associated with using social media within an employee selection process?
Benefits: It can provide insights into a candidate’s personality, professionalism, and job-relevant skills. It also helps recruiters verify information and screen candidates efficiently.
Risks: It raises legal concerns like privacy violations, disparate impact, and inconsistent application of screening criteria. There’s also a risk of bias based on non-job-related factors.

What is the difference between disparate treatment and disparate impact, and how might these concepts relate to social media use in employee selection?
Disparate treatment occurs when candidates are intentionally treated differently based on protected characteristics (e.g., race, gender).
Disparate impact happens when a seemingly neutral policy disproportionately affects a protected group.
In social media screening, disparate treatment could involve selectively searching certain applicants based on their demographic traits, while disparate impact could arise if a particular group is disproportionately excluded due to social media content.

What are some recommendations for organizations to consider should they decide to use social media screenings within their hiring processes?
Organizations should develop clear policies ensuring social media screening is job-related, applied consistently, and complies with legal standards. They should notify candidates about screenings, use third parties to avoid bias, and provide standardized training for evaluators.

Motivation

• How can we define the construct of motivation? What three components are important to this definition of motivation?

A psychological force that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior 

THREE components 1- Direction 2- Intensity 3- Persistence

• Describe the primary tenets of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- what specific needs comprise this hierarchy, and what is their proposed ordering? What are some criticisms of Maslow’s model?

Step-by-Step to where the company can put their priorities. Baseline features that need to be addressed. Maslow’s Criticisms 1- Lack of empirical support 2- Sequential, stage-based model particularly  limiting 

• What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and how are these terms relevant to Self-Determination Theory (SDT)? What needs comprise SDT, and how might these needs be fulfilled within work settings?

Intrinisic: Engaging in behavior due to genuine interest and satisfaction 

Extrinsic: Engaging in behavior due to external rewards

Self-determination Theory: need fulfillment based on three basic needs 

1. Competence (we are good)

2. Autonomy (we have choice)

3. Relatedness (relate to others) 

SDT work implication: Work can either fulfill or deprive fundamental needs, Jobs that fulfill needs will be more intrinsically satisfying 

• What types of goals are most associated with optimal performance, according to goal-setting theory?

Specific: vs. general (try your best) goals, less ambiguous 

Challenging/Difficult  (YET attainables Vs. very easy or very difficult goal)

• What does it mean for a goal to be a “SMART” goal? Define each component of the “SMART” framework. 

• Motivational Benefits of Goal Setting

What does the author suggest are the three causal mechanisms of goal setting?
Goal setting is effective because it:

• Directs attention toward goal-relevant activities.

• Energizes people, leading to higher effort.

• Increases persistence and motivates individuals to use or acquire knowledge to achieve the goal.

What are the five conditions for goal effectiveness, according to the author?

• The person must have the ability and knowledge to attain the goal

• Strong commitment to the goal is necessary

• Feedback on progress is essential.

• Complex tasks require subgoals or learning goals.

• Situational constraints should be minimized by leadership support.

What recommendations does the author provide in circumstances of goal conflict and outcome goal difficulties?

• Prioritize goals to reduce conflicts.

• Avoid continuous high-challenge goals without rest periods to prevent exhaustion.

• Use learning goals instead of outcome goals when knowledge is lacking.

• Encourage ethical goal-setting to prevent dishonest behavior.

Agreeableness did not show a significant relationship

Occupational Health & Wellbeing

• What is the relationship between stressors, stress, and strain? Be able to differentiate between chronic vs. acute stressors, physical vs. psychosocial stressors, and various types of strain (e.g., affective, cognitive, physical). 

Stressors: Physical or psychological demands to which an individual responds 

• Acute vs. Chronic 

• Physical vs. Psychological

Stress: Process

Stressor: Source 

Strain: Outcome

• What are role stressors, and what are some specific examples of the stressors we may experience related to multiple roles we hold?

Role Stressors (psycho-socially oriented) 

• Role Ambiuguity: Occurs when employees lack clear knowledge of what behavior is expected in their job 

• Role Conflict: Stressors that occur when demands from different sources are incompatible 

• Role Overload: Occurs when an individual is expected to fill too many roles at once

• Describe the Demand-Control model; according to this model, what combination of demands and control is most associated with job stress?

Demand-Control Model: 

• Demands: workload or intellectual requirements of a job 

• Control: combination of autonomy in the job and discretion for using different skill 

High Demands & Low Control → Job Stress

• What are the differences between primary, secondary, and tertiary intervention strategies? Provide examples of how an organization might use each of these intervention types to address employee experiences of strain. 

Primary Prevention Strategies 

• Assumption: The most effective approach to stress management is to remove stressors 

• Scope: Preventative 

• Target: Work environment, technologies, or organizational structures 

• Examples: Job redesign, cognitive restructuring

Secondary Prevention Strategies 

• Assumption: When unable to remove stressors, best to focus on individual reactions to stressors 

• Scope: Preventative/reactive 

• Target: Individual 

• Examples: Relaxation training, stress management training, physical fitness, nutrition

Tertiary Prevention Strategies 

• Assumption: Must treat consequences of stress once it has occurred 

• Scope: Treatment 

• Target: Individual 

• Examples: Employee assistance programs, medical care

• Why is employee wellbeing important to organizations, and what are examples of ways organizations can intentionally promote employee wellbeing?

Employee well-being: the state of individuals mental, physical, and general health, as well as their experiences of satisfaction in and outside of work

• What is absenteeism and presenteeism, and how do these concepts relate to employee wellbeing?

Absenteeism: Employee unplanned workplace absences 

Presenteeism: Lost productivity due to suboptimal employee functioning given an illness injury, or other condition

Employee Health and Well-Being

Purpose of the Article:
The article aimed to enhance understanding of the benefits of workplace flexibility for employee health and well-being and to examine whether work–family balance mediates this relationship.

Research Methods:
The authors used longitudinal data from a large multinational pharmaceutical company, analyzing changes in perceived flexibility over a year and their effects on sickness absence, work-related impairment, and job commitment.

Primary Findings:

• Increased flexibility was associated with decreased sickness absence, reduced work-related impairment, and improved job commitment.

• Work–family balance partially mediated the effects of flexibility on impairment and job commitment but not sickness absence.

Types of Flexibility & Work Arrangements:

• Schedule Flexibility: Includes flextime, compressed workweeks, and part-time work.

• Location Flexibility: Includes remote work and telecommuting.
  Examples:

• Flextime: Employees set their start and end times within core working hours.

• Remote Work: Employees work from home instead of a central office.

Hypothesized Mediating Variable:
Work–family balance was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between workplace flexibility and study outcomes such as job commitment and work-related impairment.

Leadership

• What three perspectives comprise the traditional approaches toward understanding leadership? Be able to define and describe each perspective. 

Trait Approach: Consider the traits and characteristics that make up a good leader

• Relatively stable over time & across situations 

• Innate & relatively immutable

Behavioral Approach: Consider the behaviors leaders enact (usually people- or task-focused) 

• Effective leadership is a certain pattern of behavior that motivates others toward a common goal

• Two primary groups of behavior in which leaders engage. 

  • Consideration: Behavior indicating mutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport between the supervisor and group 

  • Initiating Structure: Behvaior in which the supervisor organizes and defines group activities and his/her relation to the group 

Situational Approach: Both the leader and the situation should be considered for effectiveness

• Traits and behaviors matter, but effectiveness depends on the situation 

• Emphasizes finding the right leader for the situation, or changing leader behavior to fit given situation

• What are the Ohio State studies, and how do these studies contribute to our understanding of leader behavior?

• What is leadership development, and what are some best practices toward fostering increased capacity for leadership amongst employees?

Leadership development: The process by which individuals expand their capacity to perform effectively as leaders 

• Best practices: 

  • Most effective when begun early in one’s career 

  • Active learning methods, including role-playing, are most effective in leadership development over and above classroom training 

  • Impact of training through mentorship

• What We Know About Leadership

Three Primary Arguments in the Article:

• Leadership is a crucial and highly consequential factor in human affairs, significantly impacting organizations and society.

• Leadership is fundamentally about team and organizational performance, promoting collective success.

• Personality plays a key role in leadership, influencing both leadership emergence and effectiveness.

Big Five Personality Traits and Leadership:
Traits with Significant Relationships:

• Extraversion (strongest predictor of leadership emergence and effectiveness).

• Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability also showed moderate positive relationships.

• Openness to Experience was linked to visionary leadership.

• Trait with No Significant Relationship:

  • Agreeableness showed little to no significant correlation with leadership.

Factors Mediating the Relationship Between Leader Personality and Organizational Performance (Figure 1):

•  Leader personality influences leadership style, which in turn affects employee attitudes and team dynamics.

• These factors shape organizational culture and effectiveness, ultimately impacting overall business performance.

• Diversity and Leadership in a Changing World

Role Congruity Theory & Limited Diversity in Leadership:
Role congruity theory suggests that individuals are perceived as more suitable for roles that align with societal stereotypes. Since leadership is traditionally associated with masculine traits (e.g., assertiveness, dominance), women and other underrepresented groups face bias and resistance when pursuing leadership roles, contributing to their limited representation.

Double Bind Phenomenon & Differential Expectations:
The double bind occurs when leaders from underrepresented groups face conflicting expectations. For example, women leaders are expected to be warm and communal but are also required to be assertive and authoritative. If they are too soft, they are seen as weak; if they are too strong, they are perceived as aggressive. This phenomenon leads to differential treatment and harsher evaluations compared to majority-group leaders.

Glass Ceiling & Glass Cliff:

• Glass Ceiling: An invisible barrier preventing underrepresented individuals from reaching top leadership positions despite their qualifications.

• Glass Cliff: The tendency for women and minority leaders to be appointed to leadership roles during times of crisis, increasing their risk of failure.
  These concepts illustrate the systemic obstacles that limit career advancement for diverse leaders.

Effectiveness of Underrepresented Leaders & Multicultural Competence:
Underrepresented leaders may be particularly effective due to their adaptive skills, resilience, and ability to navigate multiple cultural perspectives. Multicultural competence enhances their ability to build relationships, foster inclusivity, and leverage diverse perspectives, making them valuable assets in a diverse workforce.