Aerobic Cellular Respiration:
Reactants: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and Oxygen (O₂)
Products: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O), and ATP (Energy)
Why do cells undergo biochemical pathways?
Cells perform complex biochemical processes like cellular respiration to efficiently extract energy from glucose and store it as ATP. These processes also help manage waste products like CO₂ and H₂O.
Fermentation:
Purpose: Provides an alternative energy pathway when oxygen is scarce, allowing cells to generate ATP through glycolysis, but without using the electron transport chain.
Byproducts:
Muscle Fermentation: Lactic acid (lactate)
Yeast Fermentation: Ethanol and CO₂
Types of Cellular Respiration:
Aerobic Respiration (requires oxygen): Produces a higher yield of ATP (up to 38 ATP).
Anaerobic Respiration (does not require oxygen): Produces less ATP (typically 2 ATP).
Algae Bead Experiment:
Color change indicates the level of CO₂ absorption, with CO₂ causing the solution to turn more acidic, and the algae beads either producing or absorbing CO₂ based on their metabolic activity.
Bromothymol Blue:
Effect of CO₂: It turns yellow in the presence of CO₂, which lowers the pH of the solution. The CO₂ comes from cellular respiration or other processes that release CO₂.
Pigments:
Molecules that absorb light energy. Example: Chlorophyll, carotenoids.
Photosynthesis Phases:
Light-dependent reactions: Occur in the thylakoid membranes, require sunlight, produce ATP and NADPH.
Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions): Occurs in the stroma, uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO₂ into glucose.
Photosynthesis Reactants & Products:
Reactants: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O)
Products: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂)
Graphing Absorbance Data:
Plot absorbance (y-axis) vs. wavelength (x-axis). The graph should include a clear title, labeled axes, and a best-fit line where applicable.
Spectrophotometer:
Measures the absorbance or transmittance of light by a solution, allowing you to determine the concentration of pigments or other solutes.
Paper Chromatography:
A technique used to separate different solutes (like pigments) in a mixture. Solutes move at different rates along the chromatography paper, separating them by their solubility and affinity for the solvent.
Stages of Mitosis:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Calculating Time Spent in Each Stage:
Use a microscope to count cells in each stage, then calculate the percentage of cells in each stage based on total cell count.
Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis:
Mitosis: Produces two identical daughter cells, maintains chromosome number (diploid).
Meiosis: Produces four genetically diverse haploid cells (gametes), reduces chromosome number by half.
Cytokinesis:
Division of the cytoplasm following mitosis or meiosis, leading to two distinct daughter cells.
Meiosis Events:
Includes crossing over (during prophase I), which exchanges genetic material between homologous chromosomes, contributing to genetic diversity.
Gametogenesis:
Spermatogenesis: Production of sperm in males.
Oogenesis: Production of eggs in females.
Homozygous vs. Heterozygous Genotypes:
Homozygous: Both alleles are the same (e.g., AA or aa).
Heterozygous: Alleles are different (e.g., Aa).
Monohybrid Cross (Punnett Square):
Monohybrid Cross: A cross between two organisms that are both heterozygous for one trait. You can predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
Dihybrid Cross:
A cross between two organisms that differ in two traits. Use a 4x4 Punnett square to calculate the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
Ecology Terms:
Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with their physical environment.
Community: A group of interacting species in the same area.
Population: A group of the same species living in a specific area.
Types of Population Growth:
Exponential Growth: Growth without limits, often occurs in ideal conditions.
Logistic Growth: Growth that slows as the population reaches carrying capacity.
Population Growth Equations:
The general formula is dN/dt = rN(1 - N/K), where:
N is the population size.
r is the growth rate.
K is the carrying capacity of the environment.
Birth Rate/Death Rate Calculations:
Birth rate is the number of births per unit time.
Death rate is the number of deaths per unit time.
Carrying Capacity:
The maximum population size that the environment can sustain indefinitely.
Resource Limitation:
When resources (food, water, space) become scarce, it can limit the population growth, leading to logistic growth.