Biopsychosocial approach: A model that considers biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness.

Brain plasticity (neuroplasticity): The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.

EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain.

CT (Computed Tomography): Combines X-ray images taken from different angles to create cross-sectional images of the brain.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Measures metabolic activity by detecting gamma rays emitted after a radioactive tracer is injected.

fMRI (Functional MRI): Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.

Lesions: Areas of damaged tissue in the brain, often studied to understand their effects on behavior and cognition.

Brain Stem: Controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate.

Hindbrain: Includes structures like the cerebellum and medulla, responsible for basic life functions and coordination.

Midbrain: Involved in vision, hearing, motor control, and the regulation of sleep/wake cycles.

Forebrain: The largest part of the brain, involved in complex functions like thought, emotion, and sensory processing.

Medulla oblongata: Regulates autonomic functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular activating system: Plays a role in arousal and attention.

Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.

Cerebral cortex: Involved in higher-order brain functions like thought and action.

Limbic system: Associated with emotions and memory; includes structures like the hippocampus and amygdala.

Thalamus: Acts as a relay station for sensory information.

Hypothalamus: Regulates bodily functions such as temperature, hunger, and thirst.

Pituitary gland: Often called the "master gland," it regulates hormones.

Hippocampus: Critical for memory formation.

Amygdala: Involved in emotional processing, especially fear.

Corpus callosum: Connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.

Split brain: Refers to patients who have had their corpus callosum severed, leading to unique cognitive and perceptual behaviors.

Broca's area: Located in the frontal lobe, crucial for speech production.

Wernicke's area: Located in the temporal lobe, important for language comprehension.

Cortex specialization: Different areas of the cortex are specialized for various functions.

Contralateral hemispheric organization: Each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

Aphasia: A language disorder resulting from brain damage, affecting speech and comprehension.

Occipital lobe: Responsible for visual processing.

Temporal lobe: Involved in auditory processing and memory.

Parietal lobe: Processes sensory information and spatial awareness.

Association areas: Regions of the cerebral cortex involved in integrating information from various sensory modalities and higher-level functions like reasoning and planning.

Somatosensory cortex: Located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Frontal lobe: Involved in executive functions, decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling behavior.

Prefrontal cortex: A part of the frontal lobe crucial for complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, and moderating social behavior.

Motor cortex: Located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements.

Consciousness: The state of being aware of and able to think about one’s own existence, thoughts, and surroundings.

Cognitive neuroscience: The study of how biological processes relate to behavioral and cognitive functions, often examining the neural basis of cognition.

Dual processing: The theory that our brains process information in two ways: a fast, automatic, intuitive system and a slower, more deliberate, analytical system.

Parallel processing: The ability to process multiple streams of information simultaneously, such as perceiving color, shape, and motion in visual stimuli.

Sequential processing: The ability to process information step-by-step, typically used in tasks requiring focus and concentration.

Sleep: A natural, reversible state of reduced responsiveness to external stimuli, characterized by changes in brain activity and metabolism.

Circadian rhythm: The internal biological clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles and other physiological processes over a 24-hour period.

Jet lag: A temporary sleep disorder resulting from rapid travel across time zones, disrupting the body’s circadian rhythm.

EEG patterns: Brain wave patterns recorded by an electroencephalogram, used to study sleep and brain activity.

Alpha waves: Brain waves associated with relaxed, awake states, typically seen when a person is calm but alert.

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep: The stages of sleep excluding REM, including light and deep sleep phases.

Hallucinations: Perceptual experiences occurring without external stimuli, sometimes associated with sleep deprivation or certain sleep disorders.

Hypnagogic sensations: Vivid sensory experiences that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep.

Delta waves: Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (NREM stage 3).

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep: A stage of sleep characterized by rapid movement of the eyes, increased brain activity, and vivid dreams.

REM rebound: The increased duration and intensity of REM sleep following sleep deprivation.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms.

Dream: A series of thoughts, images, and sensations occurring in a person’s mind during sleep, particularly during REM sleep.

Activation synthesis theory: A theory suggesting that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Consolidation theory: The idea that sleep helps consolidate and organize memories from the day.

Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep, often leading to daytime fatigue and impairments.

Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: A disorder where individuals act out their dreams, often resulting in injury.

Sleep Apnea: A serious sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep.

Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): A disorder where a person walks or performs other complex behaviors while in a state of sleep.

Sensation: The process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment through sensory organs.

Psychophysics: The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce.

Sensory receptors: Specialized cells that detect specific types of stimuli (e.g., light, sound, pressure).

Signal detection theory: A theory that explains how we discern between meaningful stimuli and background noise.

Absolute threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

Just-noticeable difference (JND): The smallest difference in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time.

Weber's Law: A principle stating that the change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus.

Sensory adaptation: The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a consequence of constant exposure to that stimulus.

Sensory interaction: The principle that one sense may influence another, such as taste and smell working together.

Synesthesia: A condition in which one sensory modality involuntarily triggers another, such as seeing colors when hearing sounds.

Cornea: the clear, protective outer layer of the eye that helps to focus incoming light onto the retina

Pupil: The adjustable opening in the center of the eye that allows light to enter.

Iris: The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil by contracting or dilating, regulating the amount of light entering the eye.

Retina: The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye containing photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) that convert light into neural signals.

Blind Spot: The area on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye, resulting in no photoreceptors and an inability to detect light.

Visual (Optic) Nerve: The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain for processing.

Lens: A transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape (accommodation) to help focus light on the retina.

Accommodation: The process by which the lens changes its shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

Nearsightedness: A condition where nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant ones because light is focused in front of the retina.

Farsightedness: A condition where distant objects are seen more clearly than nearby ones because light is focused behind the retina.

Fovea: A small central region of the retina densely packed with cones, responsible for sharp central vision.

Photoreceptors: Cells in the retina (rods and cones) that detect light and convert it into neural signals.

Transduction: The process of converting physical energy (such as light) into neural signals.

Rods: Photoreceptors in the retina that are sensitive to low light levels but do not detect color, allowing for night vision.

Cones: Photoreceptors in the retina that detect color and function best in bright light conditions.

Trichromatic Theory: A theory of color vision that suggests we have three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue, which combine to produce all colors.

Opponent-process Theory: A theory that proposes color perception is controlled by the activity of three opposing color pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

Afterimages: Visual images that persist after the stimulus is removed, often explained by the opponent-process theory.

Ganglion Cells: Neurons in the retina that receive input from bipolar cells and transmit visual information to the brain via the optic nerve.

Dichromatism: A form of color blindness where individuals can only perceive two of the three basic colors (red, green, or blue).

Monochromatism: Complete color blindness, where an individual can only see shades of gray.

Prosopagnosia: A neurological condition, also known as "face blindness," where individuals cannot recognize familiar faces.

Blindsight: A condition in which a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them, usually due to damage to the primary visual cortex.

Wavelengths: The distance between peaks of a wave, which determines the color of light in the case of vision.

Amplitude: The height of a wave, which determines the brightness of light in vision or the loudness of sound in hearing.

Frequency: The number of wave cycles per second, determining the pitch of a sound.

Pitch: The perceived highness or lowness of a sound, determined by its frequency.

Middle Ear: The part of the ear that includes the ossicles (tiny bones), which amplify sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.

Cochlea: A spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that converts sound waves into neural signals through hair cells.

Inner Ear: The part of the ear containing the cochlea and vestibular system, responsible for hearing and balance.

Place Theory: A theory of pitch perception that suggests different parts of the cochlea are activated by different frequencies of sound.

Volley Theory: A theory that explains how groups of auditory neurons fire in rapid succession to code higher frequencies of sound.

Frequency Theory: A theory that proposes pitch is determined by the frequency of nerve impulses transmitted to the brain.

Conduction Deafness: Hearing loss caused by damage to the middle ear (e.g., eardrum or ossicles), which impairs the transmission of sound waves to the cochlea.

Sensorineural Deafness: Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve.

Cochlear Implant: A medical device that bypasses damaged parts of the ear and directly stimulates the auditory nerve to provide hearing.

Sound Localization: The ability to determine the direction from which a sound is coming, using differences in timing and intensity between the two ears.

Other Sensory and Perceptual terms:

Olfactory System: The sensory system responsible for detecting smells, involving the olfactory bulbs and receptors.

Thalamus: The brain's sensory relay station, which processes information from all senses (except smell) before it reaches the cortex.

Pheromones: Chemical signals released by an individual that affect the behavior or physiology of others, often related to attraction or territory marking.

Gustation: The sense of taste, which detects flavors such as sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.

Taste Receptors: Sensory cells located on the tongue and other parts of the mouth that detect taste stimuli.