1771-1791: American revolution.

The American Revolution.

(c.1771-1791)

Theme: International Relations.

Topic Overview:

A. Background.

• Settlement of the Americas.
• The establishment of the 13 colonies and the British view of the colonies.
• Settler life - who lived there, how did they live, etc?
• Indigenous Americans - friend or foe?
• How the Colonies were governed.
• How did the Colonists perceive themselves and America (their new home).

B. Causes of the American Revolution (1763-1773).

What caused American Colonists to revolt against British rule?

• Effects of the 7 years war (1756-1763).

• Britain gained extra territory.

• Had to be garrisoned.

• Increased expense and therefore tax colonies.

• Stamp Act, 1765, and Taxation without representation, 1764-1767, and general Colonial reaction.

• Other restrictive measures - Billeting and "Proclamation Line" and Colonial reaction.

• British reaction to Colonial protests.

• Case studies - The Boston Massacre 1770 and The Boston Tea Party 1773.

C. The American War of Independence (1776-1783).

• Short Term causes:

• Preparing for war - First Continental Congress.

• Lexington and Concord.

• Bunker Hill.

• The Declaration of Independence.

• The War itself - Major battles and turning points.

• Why did America win and Britain lose?

D. The Aftermath - Consolidating the Revolution (1783-1791).

Establishing a new Government.

• The Constitution.

A. Background.

• Settlement of the Americas.

The first human settlement were the Indigenous Americans. Later, European explorers arrived in America.

The American colonies were founded along the east coast of North America in the early 1600s by private companies. If the English King gave permission, these companies could take whatever land in America they wanted. The first colony was founded in 1607, Virginia; the second in 1620, Plymouth.By 1700, there were 13 separate colonies inhabited by 2.5 million colonists.

Population estimates – 2.5- 3 million by 1770 living in the 13 colonies from Georgia to Massachusetts. Towns like Boston had about 15,000 inhabitants whilst New York had some 22,000. Philadelphia and Charleston’s populations numbered only a few thousand more.

Other places like Baltimore were only villages. Colonists went to the Americas for opportunities, especially economic. In Jamestown, Virginia, many settlers died during the first winter. Having tobacco as a crop saved the colony. Virginia got its first shipment of 20 slaves in 1619. 1620 – The Mayflower arrived at Plymouth. Many passengers were pilgrims wanting to practice their religion. Daily life was difficult. Just over half the settlers were English and others were e.g. Irish, Scottish, German, Dutch, French, and African slaves. There were many slaves on plantations in the South (in South Carolina there were about 3 Africans to every European person). Approximately every 25 years the population doubled due to immigration and natural increase.

• The establishment of the 13 colonies and the British view of the colonies.

*From book notes*

The English settlers had emigrated to North America for many different reasons: some went to seek religious freedom. Roman Catholics sought safety in Maryland, Quakers in Pennsylvania and Puritans in Massachusetts. Some went to escape religious persecution. Some went for economic opportunities, and the chance to make their fortunes outside the rigid class systems of Europe. Some sought more democratic forms of government, some went due to poverty; and some went simply for adventure. 90% of Americans earned a living by farming, a few were wealthy but most had to work hard. The 13 colonies were separate societies, colonists expected little practical help from the Government. The colonies were unified by – allegiance to George III, common language, the British Constitution. There were many differences between the colonies – Puritans vs Catholics, Scots + Irish vs English, North (wealthy, industry) vs South (agriculture, slave labour). Not all colonists were British; many came from European countries such as Sweden, Holland and Germany. Britain's interest in North America was largely economic.  They shared experiences of colonial life + ‘moving away’ from the ‘mother country’. The prosperity of the colonies was based on – industry, agriculture, fishing, slave trade, colonial exports. The colonies supplied raw materials to Britain for re-export as finished goods and also supported Britain's prosperous economy.

• Settler life - who lived there, how did they live, etc?

The English Colonists - Book Notes.

• Indigenous Americans - friend or foe?

Indigenous Americans taught settlers how to grow and cook certain foods. Settlers – trade and conflict with the Indigenous Americans. Notes.

• How the Colonies were governed.

The colonies were self-governing in most matters. However, the governor (usually representative of King George the Third) of each colony was given advice by a council, influenced and usually appointed by the British government and had power to override decisions taken by the colonists. Assemblies were elected and they voted on taxes and laws (Governor could veto decisions in law, but rarely did this). About 1 in 4 men could vote, compared with Britain - 1 in 30 men. Colonies had individual Constitutions. The British had control over what was grown in and exported from the colonies. By the Navigation Acts of the 17th century, Britain ruled that colonial goods had to be carried on British ships to Britain and then on to other parts of the world in order to exclude foreign rivals.

At first, the colonists were glad to have the protection of Britain, especially as France and Spain were also building empires. During the Seven Years War (1756-1763) Britain protected the colonies and forced the French out of America. British soldiers also fought to protect the expanding colonial settlements from the Indigenoustribes. As the colonies increased in number and grew more prosperous, however, they began to feel that close supervision from Britain could also be a nuisance. Some began to doge the trading rules. Many Resented the decisions of the local governor and wanted a greater share in government and more control over taxation. Britain, meanwhile, became concerned at the costs of maintaining the colonies. Britain had so far paid for the men and materials to fight the colonial wars, but many in Britain felt that the colonials should pay their share. It looked as if the future of colonial relations could become increasingly tense.

B. Causes of the American Revolution (1763-1773).

What caused American Colonists to revolt against British rule?

• Effects of the 7 years war (1756-1763).

The Seven Years' War.

The British, French and Spanish all had colonial interests in North America and this competition led to war in 1754. The War that raged in North America from about 1754 to 1763 was a part of a larger struggle between France and England known as the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). The Seven Years' War was named the "French and Indian (Indigenous) War" in the colonies. Most Indigenous AMercians fought on the side of the French, although some fought for the British. The war began when the English became alarmed at the Forts being built by the French in the Ohio River Valley and George Washington's defeat at Fort Necessity. So the English sent General Edward Braddock, commander in Chief of the British forces, to America to drive the French out of the Ohio Valley. The first tears of the war went terribly for the British and their American colonies. The French captured several British forts including forts at Lake Ontario. France's Indigenous American allies began staging raids on frontier farms from New York to what is now West Virginia, e.g, burned farmhouses and crops, and chased many families back to the coast.

Although the French were ultimately defeated by a land force, the British Navy had played an important role in blockading New France. New France was never a self-sufficient colony and without a steady stream of support from France, it couldn't survive. The victory in Canada allowed the British to divert thousands of troops elsewhere to ultimately win the Seven Years' War. The Treaty of Paris (1763) marked the end of France as a power in North America. The continent was now divided between Great Britain and Spain, with the Mississippi River as the boundary. Indigenous Americans living on the lands were not given a section of it by the European agreement.

Given History Level Two - Internal Assessment - Revolution - 4 credits: 7th of April.

Possible sources Notes - 21st and 23rd.

The Drift to War - 1763-1768.

Following Britain's success in the Seven Years war and the signing of a Peace with France in 1763, all of North America east of the Mississippi, including Canada and Florida, became British. But Britain's imperial supremacy meant large military debts and the additional expenses of an enlarged empire. British politicians at home wanted to know how Britain could exploit colonial tax revenues to make the empire more efficient and less expensive to govern. Britain's attempts to solve this problem led to the war in America.

The attempts to increase control:

• The British tried to stop westward migration by colonists which had resulted in expensive and bloody Indigeinois wars - ruled that all land west of the Appalachian mountains was Indigenous reserve and refused further colonial land claims in the region. Trade with Indigenous also controlled by British officials.
• Chief Pontiac led a federation of tribes in a new war in 1763 aimed at winning the return of more friendly French settlers- defeated by British who decided on "Proclamation Line" along Appalachians beyond which no colonial settlement allowed until more effective policy on Indigenous matters.
• British tighten control of colonial trade and increased colonial taxation - meant increase in power of central administrations in colonies and decrease in power of colonial assemblies.
• Sugar Act, 1764 - revenue-raising measure levying duties on molasses, wine, silk, coffee, other luxury items. Colonial opposition immediate. Claimed that the new duty would be ruinous. Also constitutional grounds for discontent - Revenue Act of 1764 meant the British could tax colonies to "improve the revenue of the kingdom". Merchants, lawyers, and local government authorities protested against this law - the concept of "no taxation without representation" raised.
• Currency Act, later in 1764 - prevented Americans producing their own paper money and prohibited use of colonial bills of credit, adding burden to colonial economy.
• Billeting Act, early in 1765 - required colonies which had British troops garrisoned in them to help with upkeep and housing.
• Stamp Act, 1765. Gave rise to organised resistance. Stamp tax imposed on all newspapers, advertisements, and other publications, so affected tradesmen, lawyers, clergy, journalists (all influential and outspoken colonials). Many demonstrations, justified by colonists on constitutional grounds - claimed that the British Parliament had overstepped its authority with this act. In May 1765, Virginia's House of Burgesses announced it had "sole and exclusive rights and power to lay taxes on the inhabitants of this colony", who were moreover "not bound to obedience to any law from Parliament". Other colonies followed Virginia's lead. Stamp Act Congress held in October in New York City, where resolutions were adopted, removing British Parliament's right to tax colonies without their own consent - the 27 delegates said "Stamp Act had a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists".
• In March of the following year British Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, persuaded by orators such as Edmund Burke who supported the colonial cause. Colonists jubilant. Parliament also passed the Declaratory Act, maintaining sovereignty of the British Parliament over colonies.

British Military policy in the colonies:

Meanwhile, the British government had retained a significant force of about 6000 troops in the colonies since the end of the Seven year war. Many colonists were suspicious of Britain's motives, and opposition to the billeting Act was intense. In 1767, the British ordered the New York assembly to enforce the act by suspending its representatives until they agreed to do so. This continued military presence, and the taxes required to maintain it, was a further burden on the colonists.

The Townshend duties:

The moderate ministry which had repealed the Stamp Act, and which had contained such conciliatory politicians as Burke, was replaced in 1767 by a new ministry led by Pitt and Townshend. In June the latter decided to try once again to raise revenue from the colonies, this time by imposing levies on all glass, paper, tea and paint imported into the colonies. Levying import taxes got around the often-expressed colonial objection to "internal taxes". The revenue raised would pay the costs of imperial administration in the colonies. A new Board of Customs Commissioners was also established to collect the duties. The Special Admiralty Court would deal with cases of smuggling or other attempts to get round the new legislation. All these measures placed the colonies under much greater centralised control than ever before. The colonists were outraged at these "Coercive Acts" and a protest movement rapidly spread throughout the colonies.  Most of the opposition came from merchants, who believed that commercial resistance would bring the British government to reason. But the British government would not compromise. The loyal colonial governor, Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts, who personally disapproved of the duties, told his masters that another repeal would only "facilitate the designs of those persons who appear to be aiming at independency". This may have been true, but opposition was becoming more organised and more radical in some quarters anyway. This was nowhere more so than in Hutchinson's own town of Boston. Resistance was led by Samuel Adams, who advocated colonial boycotts of British goods. In 1768 he issued a circular letter which denounced the concept of taxation without representation and maintained that it was unconstitutional for England to levy taxes in order to provide the salaries of royal officials in the colonies. Many other colonies approved the document. Protests organisations, which had their roots in the earlier resistance to the Stamp Act, became popular in some colonies, the most famous being the "Sons of Liberty '' in  Boston. In June 1768, Boston citizens almosted lynched a royal customs commissioner when tcustoms seized the Liberty, a boat beloning to one of the "Sons of Liberty", John Hancock. Hutchinson sent letters to Britain requesting additional military assistance. It appeared that Boston, at least, while not yet revolutionary, was on the verge of widespread popular disobedience.

• Case studies - The Boston Massacre 1770 and The Boston Tea Party 1773.

The Boston Massacre 1770.

Like many others, Boston merchant John Hancock smuggled goods to avoid paying the taxes. When customs commissioners demanded to inspect the cargo of his ship the Liberty, he and his crew locked them in a cabin, landed the smuggled goods and threw the commissioners overboard. It was obvious that customs commissioners and other officials in Boston had to be protected by armed troops. Following Hutchinson's request, four regiments of British regulars began arriving in the city in May 1768. Sam Adams hoped that their presence would create further trouble, from which the Sons of Liberty could make political capital. He was right. Brawling between soldiers and civilians became common. Redcoats (British soldiers) were beaten up by night and hauled into court on trumped up charges by day. By August 1769, the regimental lieutenant was writing to his commander General Gage, "I live in hourly dread of disturbance." "Never", said another officer, "was popular insolence at such a pitch." In early 1770 a customs officer, besieged in his home by rock-throwing youths, opened fire and killed one of them, a young man called Christopher Snider. The incident pushed Boston to the brink of rebellion. Snider's death, announced the Boston Gazette, cried for "venege" The violence came to a head on the night of March 5, 1770, in an incident which later became known as the Boston Massacre. Exactly how it happened nobody could say for certain. There had been a brawl between soldiers and a group of rope-makers on March 2, and some citizens claimed that many in the town were looking forward to a further fight with the soldiers. By the morning of March 5, rumours of a showdown were rife.

The Boston Tea Party 1773.

Background

Royal Navy Lieutenant William Duddingston was dedicated to catching smugglers near Rhode Island. His efficiency made life for the local merchants and smugglers uncomfortable; hence their pleasure when one evening in March 1772, his ship the Gaspee ran aground near Providence. This meant that he would be unable to refloat it until high tide - at midnight. Before then, Duddingston heard a boat approaching. When he shouted "Who goes there?" His answer came in a hail of bullets. He fell to the deck, wounded. The Americans in the approaching boat then boarded the Gaspee and threatened to finish Duddingston off. When he begged for his life they sent him off in a lifeboat and burned the Gaspee. Afterwards, these attackers could not be identified. No one was punished for the incident. This episode provided encouragement to radical colonists still bitter over the Boston Massacre in 1770 to proceed with a new campaign of direct action against the British. Their actions were to light the fuse of rebellion.

The problem over tea.

Tea, "harmless necessary tea, which, with the harmless necessary cat, made up the sweet content of the domestic health", was the factor which finally united the colonies and pitched them into open conflict with Britain.

The colonists loved tea, and drank two million cups a day between them. To avoid the Townshend duty, which still applied to this commodity, the colonists drank smuggled Dutch tea. Their refusal to drink the expensively taxed tea shipped by the British East India Company had brought the company to the brink of bankruptcy. In an attempt to make tt financially viable, Parliament decided to allow the East India Company to ship tea directly to the American colonies, thus avoiding the British merchant middleman. This would make the price of the tea to the colonists cheaper than the Dutch tea. But patriots declared that drinking British tea would destroy the colonists' political liberties, and tea became the critical political issue of the day. Broadsheets appeared denouncing the beverage and the Sons and Daughters of Liberty signed pledges against its consumption. In late 1773, a flotilla of British tea ships was sent to the colonies. Some merchants responded by cancelling orders, and some ships' captains sailed home without unloading any cargo. In other ports the tea consignments were locked in warehouses until the political atmosphere cooled. It was in Boston that the arrival of the teaships caused a crisis. Three ships entered Boston harbour in November 1773. Sam Adams and other radicals demanded that the ships return to England with their unwanted cargo, and after considerable argument, the captains agreed to go. At this point, Governor Thomas Hutchinson entered the dispute, pointing out that as the ships had already entered the harbour, their cargo was liable to taxation. If the duty was not paid within 20 days (by December 16), customs men would legally be entitled to confiscate the cargo.

The patriots feared that if the cargo was confiscated it would be distributed and sold in the colony. A series of town meetings was held on the issue. On the morning of December 16th, the last day before the tea would be landed, 7,000 Bostonians gathered at the Old South Meeting House and heard of Governor Hutchinson's renewed refusal to give permission for the ship's leave. The citizens voted that tea should not be landed. Amid shouts and cheers, Sam Adams dismissed the crowd with the words, "This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." The crowd recognised this as a signal for direct action. There were shouts of "Boston Harbour a teapot tonight" and "Hurrah for Griffin's Wharf!" the events that were to follow were all p[art of a prearranged plan.

The Tea Party

The plan called for disguise, the use of coded passwords, and for orderly and silent disposal of the tea. The members of the "Tea Party" included several highly regarded citizens, over 15 merchants and about 30 workers. They donned Indegious make-up and blankets and waited until dark. George Hewes, a participant, later said that he recognised John Hancock under this disguise and exchanged the password with him, "Ugh, me know you". In light rain that evening, the blanketed "Mohawks" marched quietly to Griffin's Wharf. Calmly they boarded the Dartmouth and demanded the keys to the holds from Captain Hall. Warning him and the customs officers to stay clear, they brought the tea chests up from the holds, hacked them open and dumped the cargo into the sea. They disposed of 342 chests, a quantity worth 18,000 pounds, and then, their work complete, went home quietly. "The next day", said one newspaper, "joy appeared on almost every countenance, some on occasion of the destruction of the tea, others on account of the quietness with which it was effected." Other "parties'' followed - in Annapolis, Maryland and Greenwich, New Jersey.

Response and crisis.

The British government could not ignore this defiant challenge to its authority Benjamin Franklin, then in England, was publicly denounced before the British Cabinet. In 1774 Parliament passed Lord North's Boston Port Bill which ordered the city closed to all shipping until it paid for the destroyed tea. "We must master them," said George the Third. Boston's radicals wanted to reply with another trade embargo. Conservative colonists, becoming worried by the Bostonians' lack of caution, suggested an intercolonial congress instead. But the British government had not finished. Once again the ill-judged actions of British ministers would cause further trouble. Parliament next passed three "coercive acts" on Massachusetts to tighten control on the colony and its troublesome citizens. Boston patriots called these the "intolerable acts" and hostility to the British became even more intense. Crown officers frequently had to go into hiding in the countryside. To make things worse, Parliament chose this time to pass another new measure, the Quebec Act, which extended Quebec's borders and gave the French Canadians living there freedom to worship in their Catholic religion. Although in many ways a liberal and humane act, its timing was poor. It ended the dreams of some colonists for further territorial expansion into French Canada and ruined many land speculation companies in which colonial merchants had invested. This act made even conservative colonists hostile and alienated, especially the merchant classes. It was against this background that delegates gathered for the first intercolonial congress in Philadelphia on September 5th, 1774, "ripe for any plan the congress (may) advise, should it be war itself". The resistance movement was no longer merely a rabble of Sam Adams' creation. It now contained many of the "ableist and wealthiest men in America". This movement was prepared, in the interests of both freedom and monetary gain, to go further than any previous group to challenge British authority in the colonies.

Page 44-45 In book: Who's involved.

Thomas Hutchinson: 1711-1780.

From an old and wealthy colonial family. Enrolled at Harvard at age 12, elected to the Massachusetts house of Representatives at 25. Appointed to the Governor's Council in 1740. In 1752, appointed Judge of the Probate Court, and later became Lieutenant-Governor. Although a man of high moral principle, Hutchinson was disliked for his multiple office-holding. His remoteness failed to earn him personal popularity.

Patrick Henry: 1736-1799.

Established a successful law practice in Virginia in 1760. Elected to House of Burgesses in 1763. Famous for his role in the Stamp Act debates and his speech against Parliament and the King. Henry denied that Parliament had any right to intervene in the colonies. "If this be treason," he said, "make the most of it." One of the first to foresee war, and propose arming. "I know what course others may take, but as for me, give me Liberty or give me Death!" Against the constitution.

Benjamin Franklin: 1706-1790.

Pennsylvania's foremost citizen. A printer, author, philanthropist, inventor, scientist, statesman and diplomat. Published Pennsylvania Gazette. Helped establish city policy in Philadelphia. Instrumental in getting paved streets, hospitals in the city. Invented the "Pennsylvania fireplace", Fergusons clock and the lighting rod. Pennsylvania's case to the king and council. Later diplomatic representative of the United States in France.

Thomas Jefferson: 1743-1826.

Elected member of Philadelphia House of Burgesses in 1769. Called for a day of fasting and prayer to express disapproval of Boston Port Bill. Wrote "A Summary View of the Rights of British America" which was widely read and one of the most important documents of the revolution. Argued that colonists possessed natural rights and should possess political authority. Author of Declaration. Later opposed the Constitution. After the revolution was American Ambassador to France during the revolution there.

John Hancock: 1737-1793.

A wealthy Massachusetts merchant. Elected to the Assembly in 1766. The cornerstone of Boston's boycott of the Townshend Act. Came to prominence over the Liberty incident. Evaded capture with Adams at Lexington.

George the Third: 1738-1820.

Hanoverian King of England. Came to throne in 1760 at 22. Narrow-minded and intransigent. Corrupt and politically inept at home, and determined to brook* no opposition from the colonies. Married to Charlotte of Mecklenburg. Became insane in 1788. Regency assumed by his son from 1810.

John Adams: 1735-1826.

Samue's cousin. Sympathetic to Boston radicals but defended soldiers in the Boston Massacre case in 1770. Defended Hancock on Liberty charges. Elected to the Assembly 1770. Later became the second President of the United States in 1796.

Abigail Adams: 1744-1818.

Married to John Adams. Important influence on her husband and his friends.

Paul Revere: 1735-1818.

From French Huguenot stock. Silversmith and engraver on copper. Heavily involved in planning the Boston Tea Party, and later carried the news of it to New York and Philadelphia. Minuteman in Boston. Played famous role in Lexington and Concord battles.

Mercy otis Warren: 1728-1814.

Married to James Warren, member of colonial legislature in Boston. Warren's home was an important meeting place and political club for Boston radicals. Published in Boston Gazette and other papers. Wrote an article on Boston Tea Part called "The Squabble of the Sea Nymphs".

Samuel Adams: 1722-1803.

Boston's chief radical agitator, influential propagandist. Masters thesis for Harvard was "Whether it be lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate if the Commonwealth cannot be otherwise preserved". Influenced by the Great Awakening of the 1740s, a religious revival movement stressing individual independence. First came to political prominence during debates on the Sugar Act. Elected in 1765 to represent Boston on the General Court. Elected to numerous committees. Often published in the Boston Gazette. Preferred to mould opinion rather than lead directly. Governor of Massachusetts, 1794-1797.

Edmund Burke: 1729-1797.

Philosopher and famous prose stylist. MP from 1766. A realist; "…principles should be subordinate to government." Favoured repeal of Stamp Act and Townshend suits and generally critical of his government's role in the colonial crisis. His "Reflections" on the revolution published in 1790.

Alexander Hamilton: 1757-1804.

Scottish Huguenot background. Educated at Kings College (now Columbia University). Skilled debater and political leader in New York. Important in the debates on the constitution.

Charles James Fox: 1749-1806.

Opposition MP. Attacked Quebec Act. Friend of Burke for some years.

Richard Henry Lee: 1732-1794.

Wealthy Virginian. Sat in House of Burgesses where he led a radical group of "Young Turks". Leading speaker against the Stamp Act and Townshend duties.

C. The American War of Independence (1776-1783).

• Short Term causes:

• Preparing for war - First Continental Congress.

Shaping for war: The two sides.

The British government was confident that it could suppress all colonial rebellions. "Only a few regiments," said Lord North, would "do the business." The British had about 3,500 troops in the colonies under the command of General Gage, who had arrived in mid-1774. This force was now increased to 45,000 men and supplemented with foreign mercenaries. Among the latter, the German state of Hesse-Cassell had the most representation, with 12,000 soldiers. Most Indigenous tribes also supported the British because they resented the pressure the colonists placed on their traditional forests and hunting reserves. The British never entirely trusted their Indigenous allies, however, and did not use them to good effect in the coming conflict. Britain's army was well supported by its powerful navy, which could be used to blockade American ports and bring reinforcements or supplies to strategic areas. On the debit side, Britain's lines of communication were long and delays in supply and battle commands were common. British generals were experienced in the field, but they had to receive their commands from London with a consequent five-week time-lag. Generals Gage and Howe found this frustrating. Communication was also poor between field commanders, particularly between those in the Canadian and American colonies. The standard weapon of the British infantryman was the flintlock musket, nicknamed the "Brown Bess' '. Many separate movements were required to prime and load it but a well-trained soldier would fire four to five shots per minute. Muskets were accurate to about 70 metres but were cumbersome to carry, having a four foot long barrel, with a bayonet fixed to the end. The army also had a few Ferguson rifles, more accurate at distance, but slow to load and without the useful bayonet. The British cavalryman carried a pistol and a sword. British artillery guns fired either cannon-balls at distance or grape-shot at close range. Both were capable of inflicting heavy casualties. Britain's overall strategy was to finish the colonies off as quickly as possible. She had few friends in Europe at this time and was concerned about the possibility of war on two fronts if the French attacked her at home. On the battlefield, the standard attacking manoeuvre was to form a double line of infantrymen and walk towards the enemy. When they came within range, they would fire and then charge the enemy and fight hand to hand. Cavalry moves would be coordinated with the infantry to make decisive charges. These moves techniques all required considerable training, skill and discipline. When the war began, the odds were stacked in these respects in the favour of the British. By contrast with the British, the Americans were an undisciplined, popular militia, led by men with no formal training. When the war began, each colony had a group of militiamen for local defence. Their numbers had to be heavily supplemented, and some means had to be found to pay them. This colonial army would also need a commander-in-chief. The man Congress chose was George Washington, a Virginian who had fought well in the Seven Years War. Washington was never to become a popular figure in the coming war, but he was courageous, dedicated and well respected by his men. Other prominent generals were Ward, Lee and Gates.

Infantrymen made up the bulk of the continental army. Dressed initially in a wide variety of outfits, they later wore a blue uniform. They were armed with smooth-bore flintlock muskets of many types. These are heavy and inaccurate. There were also companies of riflemen armed with the Pennsylvania or Kentucky rifle, which has a greater range and accuracy than the musket. The number of trained riflemen, however, was limited. The cavalry was small and poorly equipped. Its main use was in guerrilla tactics or for communications. Other American troops used pikes or trench spears. The colonists had little field artillery until they captured guns at Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and received supplies from France late in the war.From the outset the American side was desperate for fighting men. It recruited Black people and sometimes foreigners. One of the latter who made a useful contribution to the war was the Prussian Von Steuben, who wrote a rule book for the army and greatly improved its discipline and training. As war began, the odds were stacked against the American side. They were inexperienced and untrained. They lacked technical expertise and equipment. The men were often unpaid. Washington has to compensate for these defects with strict discipline. "If any man attempts to skulk, lie down or retreat without orders, he'll be instantly shot down as an example." If the colonial militia was to stand a chance against the British's professional army, it would need not only discipline but courage, inspired leadership and skilled tactics. It would also benefit from British errors. In 1774, from the British point of view, it seemed highly unlikely that the colonial militia could acquire any of these advantages.

The first continental congress.

With the threatening position adopted by Britain over the Coercive Acts, it became vital that the colonies cooperate with each other. When Boston's action group the Committee of Correspondence received word of the Port Bill ((closure of their port by Britain), it sent a circular letter to all 13 colonies requiring a trade boycott of Britain. Most agreed, with the exception of New York and Philadelphia, whose merchants had no wish to interfere with trade. These colonies instead proposed a "congress of deputies" for the "security of our rights".When the 56 delegates to the congress eventually met in Philadelphia, they revealed a new and aggressive spirit by meeting in the Carpenters' Hall, a well-known centre of radical activity. Once discussion gegan, it was clear that the Virginians were the most supportive of the Bostonians.Discussion was strongly influenced also by the ideas of Thomas Jefferson, whose "Summary View of the Rights of America" summarised the radical views of Adams, Lee, Henry and other popular speakers. These men called not only for unity, but for the total independence and complete political autonomy of the colonies. But this was too radical for others. The "Continental Congress" eventually decided on the formation of an association between colonies and another boycott of British goods, and that all economic acts since 1763 be repealed. Support for Boston was agreed upon, but only in the event of a defensive war against Britain. Despite its lack of radicalism, the congress was a critical step towards American unity. The publicity it received ensure that the Coercive Acts became the concern of all colonists, not just those in the affected seaport towns. Delegates referred to the Coercive Acts as "the attempts of a wicked administration to enslave America", and Jefferson's writings shaped the opinions of many. This unity was carried over into individual colonies as a more organised system of extra-legal government. Colonial associations formed local groups to spearhead the organisation of resistance. They used ruthless means to increase membership of the patriot cause and began the collection of men and military supplies. These were to be the foundations of independent government.However, even now, on the eve of war, many colonists remained loyal to Britain. They distrusted this new radical approach and favoured a negotiated settlement. Loyalists were often the holders of official positions, or members of Puritan religious groups, such as the pacifist Quakers. King George the third could have used these groups to his advantage, but instead he rejected a petition from Philadelphia Quakers in 1774, writing "the die is cast, the colonies must submit or triumph". This attitude forced all colonists to make a clear choice in their allegiance. Many loyalists now turned to the patriot cause. Those who did not would be victimised and treated as outcasts during the coming war. The battle lines were being laid. By the time the colonial congress broke up in October 1774, after agreeing to meet again the following year, the English were sufficiently concerned by the situation to offer some concessions, including the cessation of direct taxes. But it was too late: at the same time this message was received, the first shots were being fired in Boston. From now on the colonial association represented a colonial government at war.

• Lexington and Concord.

How did the cold war between Britain and the colonists hot up? What happened at Lexington and Concord?

The British received intelligence about a cache of militia supplies at the town of Concord.

What were the results of these first skirmishes of the war?

273 British regulars were killed and 93 patriot colonists were killed in the town of Lexington.

The First Shots: Lexingston and Concord.

By not condemning the use of force, the congress had prepared the way for violence. It appeared first, predictably, in Boston.In and around that city well-organised radical propaganda urged on the resistance while the congress met. Patriots had been joining groups of "minutemen", who were trained as a quick response militia and communications network, as well as in obtaining supplies and smuggling weapons from Europe. In March 1775, the British seized a shipload of 13,000 cartridges being smuggled to the Massachusetts rebels. In April, British military authorities received intelligence about another cache of military supplies at the town of Concord, a few kilometres outside Boston. Rebel leaders John Hancock and Sam Adams, whose arrests had recently been ordered from London, were also known to be in the area. One the night of April 18 1775, a force of 700 British regulars, commanded by General Gage's senior regimental commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Francis Smith, moved out of Boston. The soldiers were lightly armed with no baggage or artillery.  Gage hoped for a swift raid on the Concord store, taking the patriots by surprise. But the patriots had many watchers, who expected an attack. Some theories even have it that the rebels planted the rumours of the Concord stores to lure the soldiers out. As the troops departed, two lanterns in the bell tower of the Old North Church gave the message to the minutemen: one of them, Paul Revere, rode through the night Lexingston, a small town en route to Concord, warning the locals that the Redcoats were coming, When the British reached Lexington, they exchanged shots with militiamen on the village common. Adams and Hancock, who had been staying in a house in the town, had fled to a safe house nearby. The British charged the militia, who retreated, leaving several dead. "Oh," said Sam Adams when he heard news of the engagement, "what a glorious morning this is." Meanwhile, before the regulars could cover the few miles remaining to Concord, the first detachments of minutemen began to arrive along the British line of march, firing upon the troops from cover. This delayed the British enough for the rebels to remove most of the military equipment from Concord. When the British finally arrived they found little to destroy. Worse, when they turned for home they found patriot reinforcements in great numbers along the road. A savage battle was fought at Concord's North Bridge, forcing the no exhausted British to retreat towards Boston. By now the countryside was swarming with armed New Englanders who, hidden behind buildings and stone walls, attacked the British every step of the way. Fighting was vicious, with heavy casualties on both sides. As the hot summer day wore on, the toll on the British troops was almost overwhelming. Only the arrival of artillery reinforcements saved them from probable capture. They had lost 273 regulars, as against 93 patriot deaths. The war had begun. This military action was followed by intense propaganda activity on both sides, with patriots claiming that the British had caused needless civilian deaths. But many still did not think that the Lexington and Concord incidents meant it was inevitable. Jefferson called the fighting "an accident". However, in June, the "accident" was to be repeated, with even more bloody results.

• Bunker Hill.

The First Battle: Bunker Hill.

After the preliminary skirmishes at Lexington and Concord, large numbers of patriot forces encircled the hills around Boston, trapping the British regulars inside the city. Although the British naval commander Admiral Graces suggested moving artillery guns to the hills overlooking Boston and its harbour, Gage rejected this advice, and decided to wait for reinforcements from England, and for three new Major-Generals - Sir William Howe, Henry Clinton and John Burgoyne - who were to arrive in May. However, before all the additional troops had arrived, and while the hills were still unoccupied, the patriots besieging the city acted. On the night of June 16th, 1775, a detachment of 1,600 Americans occupied the two hills on the Charleston Peninsula opposite Boston. They began to dig trenches and artillery redoubts on Bunker Hill and Breeds Hill. From these commanding positions their artillery would soon be able to bombard the city. It was not essential for the British to respond. They decided on a frontal attack, believing that their well-trained soldiers and superior weapons would win easily. General Howe landed a force on the beach and stormed Breed's Hill. Twice the British were driven back by well-aimed musket fire, but on a third attempt, reinforced with additional men, they took the hills, driving the patriots, who were almost out of ammunition, from the peninsula. While technically the battle could be reckoned a British victory, and though it illustrated the discipline and courage of the soldiers, it cost the British 1,054 lives. A high proportion of the dead were officers; approximately 1/8th of all British officers killed during the revolutionary war were killed during this one battle. The colonists lost 100 dead, 267 wounded and 30 prisoners. The battle greatly strengthened their morale and showed that patriot troops, though untrained, could be effective if deployed in a strong defensive position.The battle, which Clintondescribed as a "dear bought victory; another such would have ruined us", set the tone for future military engagements and showed the Bi\ritish command that they could expect a long and hard-fought war, expensive in both men and materials. The British government was so concerned by these implications, and by the shortcomings of their traditional military tactics exposed by the battle, that they recalled Gage and replaced him with General Howe, who had led the decisive charge, as Commander-in-Chief.

• The Declaration of Independence.

The Second Continental Congress and The Declaration of Independence.

By the time the second Continental Congress met in May 1775, most of the points discussed during the first meeting had been settled by the outbreak of hostilities. Enthusiasm for the war was high, and in a statement entitled the "Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms" the congress affirmed that, "We have counted the cost of this contest and find nothing so dreadful as voluntary slavery… Our cause is just. Our union is perfect… We most solemnly and before the world declare that… we will in defiance of every hazard with unabating firnmness and perseverance employ [our forces] for the preservation of our liberties, being with one mind resolved to die free men rather than live slaves." The outbreak of war also caused the dissolution of colonial systems of government. British governors dissolved colonial legislatures as soon as each declared its support for the patriot cause. The legislatures were replaced by a network of extra-legal local committees and provincial congresses which gradually became de facto governing bodies. They gathered munitions, trained recruits, passed laws, and appointed Committees of Public Safety to coordinate military planning. Colonial government thus passed into patriot hands. Key decisions of common interest were made in the congress itself, which appointed military commanders, issued currency and negotiated with the British. The Continental Congress was assuming the functions of an executive governing body. In spite of this transfer of power, and though it continued to prepare for war, the congress, in May and June of 1775, continued to proclaim its loyalty to the king, though not to Parliament. This conservative position could not be maintained when in August the king formally declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion and passed the Prohibitory Act, declaring all the Americans to be outlaws. The issue then became either defeat or independence. No negotiated settlement was now possible. Increasingly, as the congress continued to meet, discussion focused on the theme of independence. By January 1776 the possibility of a Declaration of Independence had been raised. This was intended to be a clear statement of the ideals and philosophy of the American cause which would force many previously uncommitted Americans to support the war rather than to continue to hope for political compromises which the congress now knew to be impossible. Congress was also aware that the French would give military assistance if the Americans committed themselves formally to a struggle for independence. The issue of formal independence caused all colonists to examine their fundamental political convictions. Each individual had to examine the grounds of their beliefs regarding the nature of freedom and the right to protest against injustice. While some remained convinced loyalists and though the conservative legislatures of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, and South Carolina instructed their congressional delegates not to vote for a declaration of independence, the pressure for such a measure increased. Thomas Paine's famous pamphlet "Common Sense",, which argued that Americans had a unique historical chance to create a new society free from the corruption of the Old World and based on rational principles of justice and freedom, converted many to the cause of independence. Those who argued against independence believed that it was premature. They wanted to construct a plan for central government first, rather than to take such a step which would eliminate any possibility of an eventual reunion with England. Advocates of independence argued that a formal declaration was urgently needed. Holding 13 disparate colonies together to fight what promised to be a lengthy war would be difficult - they needed a focus for unity. Moreover, unless such a declaration was made they had no chance of foreign assistance. On June 7th, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed that "these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." On July 1st, 1776, the general debate on independence was held. As discussion began, some delegates were still opposed to it. Some, like South Carolina, changed sides in the course of the debate; others, like New York, abstained from voting on it. By July 4th, the Declaration of Independence, which a committee headed by Thomas Jefferson had been working on for some time, was agreed in its final form and passed. The declaration, as drafted by Jefferson, portrayed the revolution as a struggle between tyrannical government and liberty. After listing a number of British actions aimed at reducing the colonies to "absolute despotism", the declaration asserted that it was not just the right but the duty of every American to throw of this tyranny. While much of Jefferson's philosophy was a restatement of the tenets of English common law, much of it was distinctively new and was to become the inspiration of other revolutions and other generations. Jefferson's highest ideal is summed up in the famous second article of the declaration: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable Rights; that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.". This was to become the rallying cry for revolution and war, and later, the offical creed of a united America.

• The War itself - Major battles and turning points.

Two Battles from the war.

The Revolutionary War.

Early in 1776 patriot forces crushed North Carolina loyalists and in March forced British evacuation of New York. But then suffered setback. George Washington, Commander-in-Chief of continental army, rightly believed New York to be key British target (supplied rebels in north with men and equipment) and decided to defend it with 18,000 men. In late 1776 General Howe attacked with 30,000 men - Washington's army performed badly and forced to retreat. Howe not aware of withdrawal until too late - British missed opportunity to end war early (if Washington's army was destroyed, Congress would hae had great difficulty raising another). Washington and intact forces retired to Pennsylvania. In December 1776 Washing made a surprise attack on Hessian troops at Trenton, New Jersey. British tried to counter-attack, but Washington again withdrew and attacked British port at Princeton. British forced back to New York.In September, 1777, General How captured Philadelphia, forcing Congress to flee. Washington cut off - he spent his winter at Valley Forge. British General Buroyne moved down from Canada to capture Lake Champlain-Hudson River line so as to isolate New England from other colonies and to be co-ordinated with Howe's attack on Pennsylvania which would neutralise Washington's beleagurred troops. But he moved slowly, and became embroiled in battle on Vermont border - heavy casualties. Americans in Mohawk Valley prevented British reinforcements. Washington sent regular troops to strengthen patriots, and Yankee militias repulsed British attacks near Saratoga. In face of winter rains, mass desertions (particularly by Hessians and surrounded by American troops on both sides, Burgoyne surrendedered on October 17th, 1777, to General Gates. This key battle shattered British strategy and brought French (historic enemies of British) into war on American side. In retrospect, greatest American victory of war, and crucial military turning point. Benjamin Franklin warmly recieved at French court after Declaration of Independence (educated ckasses in France sympathetic to ideals of revolution). After news of Burgoyne's syrrebderm French convinced that patriot cause was serious and in Febuary, 1778, signed treaties of alliance. Many French volunteers sailed for America, including Marquis de Lafayette, who became most useful general in Washington's army. In June, 1778, Howe forced to evacuate Philadelphoa, and in July, French navy arried off Delaware coast, greatly aggravating British problems of communication and supply. Louis the 16th then sent French expeditionary force under General Rochambeau. Spain and Netherlands declared themselves for American side. Frustrated in north, British shifted hopes to southern colonies where loyalist sentiment strong. Retaining northern bridgehead at New York, they captured Savannah, Georgia (In December, 1778), Charleston, South Carolina (main seaport of southern states) early in 1780. Lord Cornwallis, British Commander in south, then marched north to Virginia to maintain better communications with General Clinton in New York. Repulsed at battle of King's Mountain in 1780, Cornwallis then successfully established base at Yorktwon, Virginia in 1781. Although French fleet under De Grasse had control of Virginia coastline, Cornwallis felt relatively secure because Washington's troops were trapped in New York. But Americans and French secretly moved troops 400 miles down Chesapeake Bay coast - combined armies totalled 16,000 men, twice as many as Cornwallis had. American and French trapped Corneallis in Yorktown and bombarded town with cannons for over a month, On October 19th, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered - military phase of American revolution over. In England, House of Commons voted to end war, British Prime Minister, Lord North, and mimstry resigned, new government formed under Lord Shelburne to work out terms of peace. Talks began in Paris, and in September 1782, final treaty signed. Terms of settlement generous and designed to lay foundation for future reconciliation. The 13 colonies were acknowledged as independent, free and sovereign and granted some coveted western territories. Congress promised to restore loyalist property confiscated during war. On December 4th, 1783, British evacuated New York, last foothold on their former colonies, though they kept control of the area around the great lakes.

D. The Aftermath - Consolidating the Revolution (1783-1791).

Establishing a new Government.- The Constitution.

The war of independence was over. The 13 colonies had won their struggle and yet they remained 13 separate states. The question of union lay ahead. Would the American people be able to successfully build a new nation?

Glossary:

Colony: an area of land settled by people of another country. Puritan: a form of Protestantism which seeks to purify and simplify church ritual and ceremony and which emphasises the importance of preaching. Quaker: A Puritan sect with an emphasis on simplicity of dress and speech, and on peaceful behaviour. Re-export: a trade good which has been imported as a raw material, finished, and exported again. Navigation acts: acts regulating North American trade with Britain. Seven years war: war between Britain and France over colonial expansion in North America. Duty: tax, excise. East India Company: a British monopoly company exporting goods from India. Flotilla: fleet. Hawk: an Indigenous tribe. Delegates: representatives. Boycott: in this case a refusal to purchase British goods in order to show disapproval of British policy. Autonomy: full self-government. Extra-legal: outside the law. Pacifist: peace-loving, disapproving of war. Cessation: stopping, ending. Redcoats: British troops. Regulars: British infantryman. Besiege: Encircle or surround, hoping to starve out. Detachment: group, small force. Redoubt: artillery dug-out or hollow. Loyalists: those who remained loyal to Britain during the war. Delegates: representatives to the congress. Disparate: different. Tyranny: powerful and intolerant government which has no concern for human rights. Despotism: the excerise of absolute power, especially in a cruel and opressive way. Tenet: principle. Inalienable: inborn, unchangeable. Counter-attack: to attack an attacker, to fight back. Repulse: to drive back, repel. Ratify: confirm and accept. Union: group of united states. Confederation: loose group of allied states. Executive: the decision-making power in government which executes policy. Legislature: the law-making branch of government. Judiciary: the law courts abd kegak adnubustratuib branch of government. Republic: a system of government where the people, not monarchs, are sovereign. Federal: central or overall government in a two-tiered system. State's rights: the desire of states to protect their individual autonomy against interference by federal government. Federalist: a proponent of federal government. Inaugurate: to swear in office. Ideological: to do with ideas, theories. Imagery: symbols, images.