histiry

De Jure Segregation – Legal segregation enforced by laws, especially in the South (e.g., Jim Crow laws).

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) – Supreme Court decision declaring racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Little Rock Nine (1957) – Nine Black students who integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, facing heavy resistance.

Martin Luther King Jr. – Civil rights leader who promoted nonviolent protest; famous for his “I Have a Dream” speech.

Sit-ins – Nonviolent protests where Black students sat at segregated lunch counters demanding service.

Freedom Ride (1961) – Integrated bus rides into the segregated South to test Supreme Court rulings; met with violent opposition.

March on Washington (1963) – Civil rights rally where MLK delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech; pushed for civil rights legislation.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 – Banned literacy tests and other discriminatory practices that suppressed Black voters.

Malcolm X – Civil rights activist who advocated for Black empowerment and self-defense; associated with Nation of Islam.

Equal Pay Act (1963) – Aimed to abolish wage disparity based on sex.

War on Poverty – President Lyndon B. Johnson’s initiative to reduce poverty in America through social programs.

Great Society – Johnson’s domestic agenda to eliminate poverty and racial injustice; included Medicare, education, and urban development reforms.

Medicare – Federal health insurance for people over 65 or with certain disabilities; part of the Great Society.

Counterculture – 1960s movement rejecting mainstream American values, favoring peace, love, and communal living.

Generation Gap – Cultural divide between youth and their parents, especially during the 1960s.

“Hippies” – Members of the counterculture who embraced peace, drugs, and alternative lifestyles.

Negative Side of the Counterculture – Drug abuse, lack of direction, and societal rejection; some communes failed.

Feminism – Movement for gender equality; gained momentum in the 1960s and 70s.

Title IX (1972) – Prohibited sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and sports.

Cesar Chavez – Labor leader who fought for farm workers’ rights, co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW).

Chicano Movement – Mexican-American civil rights movement seeking education reform, labor rights, and political empowerment.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Created in 1970 to enforce environmental protection laws and regulations.

Bay of Pigs (1961) – Failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro exiles.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) – 13-day confrontation between the U.S. and USSR over Soviet missiles in Cuba; nearly led to nuclear war.

Blockading Cuba – U.S. naval blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis to prevent more Soviet missiles from arriving.

“Hot Line” – Direct communication link between the U.S. and Soviet Union established after the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Space Race – U.S.-Soviet competition for space exploration dominance during the Cold War.

Apollo 11 (1969) – First successful moon landing by the U.S.; astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin.

Berlin Wall – Wall built by East Germany (1961) to prevent East Berliners from fleeing to West Berlin; Cold War symbol.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) – Gave President Johnson authority to use military force in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war.

Americanization – Escalation of U.S. involvement in Vietnam with more American troops and resources.

Operation Rolling Thunder – Sustained U.S. bombing campaign against North Vietnam.

Agent Orange – Toxic herbicide used by U.S. in Vietnam to destroy jungle cover; caused serious health issues.

Unconventional War – Guerrilla tactics used in Vietnam, making traditional warfare ineffective.

Tet Offensive (1968) – Major Viet Cong/North Vietnamese assault during the Vietnamese New Year; turned U.S. public opinion against the war.

Credibility Gap – Distrust between the U.S. public and government due to misleading statements about Vietnam.

Vietnamization – Nixon’s policy to gradually withdraw U.S. troops and hand over combat to South Vietnamese forces.

Invading Cambodia (1970) – U.S. expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia, sparking protests.

Kent State Killings (1970) – National Guard shot and killed four student protesters during anti-war demonstration.

My Lai Massacre (1968) – U.S. soldiers killed hundreds of Vietnamese civilians; increased anti-war sentiment.

Pentagon Papers (1971) – Leaked documents revealing U.S. government deception in the Vietnam War.