DA

Untitled Flashcards Set



  • Being realistic and having an accurate perception of reality is NOT a critical component of mental health

  • Optimism is a general expectation that good things will happenĀ 

    • Future-orientedĀ 

    • SubjectiveĀ 

    • Cognitive, motivational, and emotionalĀ 

  • Pessimism - the tendency to expect negative things in the futureĀ 

  • Optimism and pessimism are not necessarily opposites - you can even experience both at the same timeĀ 

  • OptimismĀ 

    • inherent part of human natureĀ 

      • Gives us a baseline optimism thatā€™s generally more positiveĀ 

    • Individual differences existĀ 

      • Depends on the situation and personĀ 

      • It's a characteristic that people possess to different degrees

  • Dispositional OptimismĀ 

    • A global expectation that good things will happen and bad things will not

    • Benefits:Ā 

      • More active and effective copingĀ 

        • Problem-solvingĀ 

        • PlanningĀ 

        • Positive reframingĀ 

      • Better adjustment to life transitionsĀ 

        • Starting collegeĀ 

        • New parenthood (lower levels of postpartum depression)

        • Health issuesĀ 

      • Better work performanceĀ 

        • Motivation

        • ProductivityĀ 

        • Interactions

        • Work-life balance

      • Increased health and longevity

        • Fewer illnessesĀ 

        • Stronger immune systemsĀ 

        • Faster recoveryĀ 

        • Lived 7.5 years longer when positive

  • Optimism does not lead people to ignore health issues and minimize threatsĀ 

  • Optimism does not lead people to persist on goals that are unattainableĀ 

  • Optimism as an explanatory styleĀ 

    • Martin SeligmanĀ 

    • Positive style in thinking about causes of eventsĀ 

    • Itā€™s the way we think about the causes of events that forms the basis of whether we are pessimistic or optimistic

    • Sometimes referred to as learned optimism

      • It stemmed as an opposite from learned helplessness

    • 3 dimensions of attributionsĀ 

      • Stability: stable vs. temporaryĀ 

      • Pervasiveness: global vs. specificĀ 

      • Locus of control: interval vs. external

    • PessimisticĀ 

      • Negative events are stable, global, and internal

    • OptimisticĀ 

      • Negative events are temporary, specific, and externalĀ 

    • Explanatory style for bad events is better predictorĀ 

    • Associated with positive outcomesĀ 

      • Chris Peterson - Harvard Study of Adult DevelopmentĀ 

        • Better physical health in military veteransĀ 

        • Correlation between optimism and good health werenā€™t there immediately but it appeared decades later (started around age 45)Ā 

      • Seligman study: winning records in MLB teams

        • Correlation between optimism and pessimism with last season predicting next season outcomesĀ 

      • Better academic and athletic performanceĀ 

      • More productive work

      • Better interpersonal relationshipsĀ Ā 

      • Greater life satisfactionĀ 



2/12 Notes


  • Kristen generally feels good about the future and is confident that things will work out for her. This is an example of which type of optimism?

  • Dispositional optimism


  • Joeā€™s teacher asks a question and he gives the wrong answer. Joe thinks, ā€œI always get nervous when I have to answer questions.ā€ Joe has made an attribution that isā€¦

  • Stable attribution


Myths about Optimism

  • You are either optimistic or pessimistic

  • Optimists are born not made

  • Being an optimist is always better than being a pessimist

  • Optimism is necessary for human flourishing

  • There are no downsides to optimism



Truths about Optimism

  • It varies across domain and situation

  • We can change how we think

  • One type of pessimism is associated with good task performance

  • Possible to be pessimistic and have good well-being

  • Optimism can impair planning for future eventsĀ 


Defensive pessimism

  • Negative thinking that channels anxiety about failure into successful achievementĀ 

  • Sets low expectations

  • Allows planning for worst-case outcomesĀ 

  • Associated with good performance, but also more anxiety and neuroticism, lower self esteem

  • Sense of control helps to reduce risk of depression compared to other pessimists


Most helpful with

  • Negative outcomes that are possible and important

  • These outcomes can be prevented


Downsides of Optimism

  • Being unprepared for future negative events

  • Risk taking behaviors (smoking, seat belt wearing)

  • Toxic positivity

  • Being too unrealistic


Optimism & Reality

  • Optimism can have costs if it is too unrealisticĀ 

  • Flexible or realistic optimism is ideal

  • Best to be optimistic when the future can be changed by positive thinking, but not otherwise


Too much realism can be problematic

  • Common positive illusions

  • Self serving bias, rosy future, exaggerated control,Adaptive attributions

  • Associated with healthy adjustment

  • Depressive realism- people with mild depression have more accurate judgements


Increasing Optimism

  • Reflect on positive experiences

  • Practice reframing different situations


2/14


Hope

  • Two components

  • Pathways: the ability to find ways to reach your goals

  • Agency: motivation to use those pathwaysĀ 

  • What type of goals?

  • Highly valued

  • Short term or long term goals

  • Approach oriented or prevention oriented

  • Easy or difficult


Sources

  • Learned cognitive set

  • Cause and effect learning from caregivers

  • Strong attachment important


Benefits

  • College outcomes

  • Athletic performances

  • Happiness, satisfaction

  • Therapeutic outcomes

  • Physical health


Locus of control, self esteem, and personality


Locus of control

  • Behavior is shaped by expectations

  • Expectations of the degree of personal control we have in our lives

  • Internal: outcomes under personal control

  • External outcomes are influenced by external factors

  • Internal reinforces behavior, external punishes

  • Internal associated with self esteem, coping, and life satisfaction


Self-esteem

  • Own capacities, own judgement

  • The evaluative component of self-concept

  • Strongly related to happiness

  • Why important?

  • Foundation for life satisfaction

  • Buffer against stress and anxiety

  • Self esteem helps to maintain social relationships

  • Sociometer theory: serve as a metric for monitoring social relationshipsĀ 

  • Caveats: the basis for self esteem matters, the pursuit of self esteem is not necessarily advantageous

  • Takes attention away from things that yield happiness


Personality

  • 5 factor model

  • Conscientiousness and extraversion are positively associated with subjective well-being

  • Neuroticism: negative affect

  • Conscientiousness: strong relationship with life satisfaction, achievements, self direction, health longevity

  • Agreeableness/openess: weak relationships

  • Similar overall relatioshiops with eudaimonic well-being

  • Openess: personal growth


2/17


Goal Pursuit and Change

  • Goals

  • Desired outcomes that people extend energy trying to achieve

  • Motivational concept: energizing and directing our behavior towards the behavior of these outcomes

  • What makes us adopt a goal? Research says that commitment to a goal comes from valuable and attainable

  • Expectancy Value Theory: goal- directed behavior is determined by expectation of attaining a goal and the incentive value of that goal


Goal characteristics

  • Goals more likely to be achieved: concrete

  • Better for goals to be more: specificĀ 

  • SMART goals

  • Specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time based

  • Put forth more effort when goals are: difficultĀ 

  • More likely to achieve goals that are autonomous or controlled? AutonomousĀ 

  • Are we more likely to achieve approach goals or avoidance goals? Approach

Approach and Avoidance Goals

  • Approach goals: positive outcomes that people move toward

  • Avoidance goals: negative outcomes that people try to preventĀ 

  • Avoidance goals are associated with worse perrformance and fewer positive outcomes

  • Reasons for the difference: approach goals are easier to regulate and monitor

  • Avoidance goals evoke anxiety and self-defensiveness

  • Avoidance goals are associated with decreased feelings of competence and self esteem

  • Avoidance goals are less likely to feel freely chosen and intrinsically enjoyableĀ 


Materialistic Goals

  • Overemphasis on materialistic goals is negatively related to well-beingĀ 

  • Why the negative relationship?

  • Extrinsic goals direct people away from intrinsically satisfying goals

  • Financial goals are often controlled not autonomousĀ 

  • May develop out of insecurity


Monitoring Goal Progress

  • We calculate the discrepancy between current state and desired end-state

  • The act to close the gap: higher-than-expected rate-> positive feelingsĀ 

  • Lower-than-expected rate-> negative feelings and often greater effortĀ 


2/21 Notes


Increasing intrinsic motivation

  • Doing something we purely want to

  • Things that can increase intrinsic motivation: autonomy, competence, and relatedness, alignment with personal values, removal of barriers, timing of extrinsic rewards


Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

  • Both are important for performanceĀ 

  • Intrinsic predicts quality

  • Extrinsic predits quantity


Goals and Well-being

  • Positive relationships between goal related progress and well-being

  • Depends on goal importance and other factorsĀ 

  • The matching hypothesis: the degree of person-goal ā€œfitā€ determines the effect on well-being

  • Greater likelihood of increased well being with pursuit of goals that express needs, values, and motives or self control

  • Personal expressiveness

  • Activities that show our true selves

  • Pursuit of expressive goals produces feelings of involvement and meaning

  • Associated with eudaimonic well-beingĀ 

  • Autonomous motives: freely chosen goals more likely to increase well-being



Transtheortetical Model of Change

  • Precontemplation: not intending to change

  • Contemplation: recognizing the need for changeĀ 

  • Preparation: making plans to change

  • Action: actively altering behavior

  • Maintenance: continuing new behaviors and avoiding relapse

  • Termination: new behavior is fully established



Goal commitment: making a decision and following through

  • Keeps us on track when we face challengesĀ 

  • Meets our needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomyĀ 

  • Can be increased by looking for meaning, choosing commitments, and setting priorities




2/24

Ā The WOOP model


  • Goal-setting strategy for initiating and sustaining effort toward goals

  • W: Wish

  • O: outcome

  • O: obstacle

  • P: plan


Wish

  • What is something you want that is important to you?


Outcome

  • What will it be like to accomplish this?


Obstacle

  • What is your biggest internal obstacle?


Plan

  • How will I navigate this obstacle?


The model is practical and evidence based

  • Can apply it in a lot of different ways

  • Related to success with our goals


Self Regulation

  • Ability to initiate and guide actions towards the achievement of a desired future goal

  • ā€œMarshmellow testā€: children who could delay gratification had more positive future outcomes

  • Observed in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood


Benefits

  • Better adjustment and less psychopathology

  • Better relationships and social skills

  • Fewer addiction problems

  • Better academic performance


Control Theory

  • Regulation is directed toward reducing the discrepancy between current state and future positive goals

  • Emotional experience depends on rate of progress, not actual discrepancy

  • 4 components: standards, monitoring, strength/will power, and motivation


Planning for success

  • Planning in advance has a large effect on self-regulation success

  • Two types of intentions: goal intentions (desire for outcome) & implementation intentions (plan for action)

  • Specifying implementation intentions is an integral component in goal achievementĀ 

  • Creates markers that make self regulation more efficient, automatic, and less susceptible to distractions

Other important factors

  • Commitment: degree of determination and willingness to persevere

  • Confidence: belief about ability to accomplish a task


Self Control Failures

  • Excuses: failures in self control typically viewed negativelyĀ 

  • To avoid negative inferences, we create explanationsĀ 

  • Excuses: self serving explanations that aim to reduce personal responsibility, thereby disengage core components of self from the incidentĀ 


2/26


Self regulation failures


Excuses

  • advantages

  • Protects self esteem

  • Reduces guilt & self blame

  • Motivates improvement

  • Helps relationshipsĀ 


  • DisadvantagesĀ 

  • Problematic when used excessively

  • Reduces self control


Irresistable impulses

  • Irritability to resist temptations and strong emotionsĀ 

  • Evidence suggests that beliefs about control may be most importantĀ 


Procrastination

  • Example of self regulation failure

  • Voluntary delay of intended action despite being worse offĀ 

  • Produces short term benefits but long term costs

  • Reduced stress and fewer health problems earlyĀ 

  • More stress and health problems later

  • Lower quality work


More factors-> procrastination

  • Age: negitively correlatedĀ 

  • Neuroticism: small positive correlation

  • Conscientiousness: large negative correlation

  • Impulsiveness: large positive correlation

  • Intelligence and positive affect: weak to nonexistent relationships

  • Self handicapping


  • Most likely to procrastinate on tasks that are boring or unpleasant

  • Intentions are unrelatedĀ 


GritĀ 

  • Passion and perseverance for long term-and meaningful goalsĀ 

  • Having direction and commitmentĀ 

  • Persisting even after experiencing difficulty or failureĀ 

  • Predicts success beyond what talent and intelligence contributeĀ 


3/10


Developing grit

  • Develop a fascination

  • Daily improvementĀ 

  • Greater purpose

  • Growth mindset


The growth mindset

  • Fixed mindset: believing your qualities are carved in stone

  • Growth mindset: believing your basic qualities can be cultivated through effortsĀ 


Associated withā€¦

  • Embracing challenges

  • Persisting

  • Valuing effort

  • Learning from criticism

  • May have a bidirectional relationship with grit


Goal Disengagement

  • Letting go of unattainable goals is often advantageous

  • No obvious indication of when we should disengage

  • Emotional consequences more significant for highly important goals


Benefits

  • Higher SWB

  • Less stress

  • Greater self mastery

  • Greater investment in new goalsĀ 



Flow

  • An intrinsically rewarding and enjoyable state of complete absorption with an activity

  • Defining feature: intense involvementĀ Ā 


How do we measure flow?

  • Often measured with the experience sampling method


Characteristics of Flow

  • Challenge skill balance: skills and balance at hand

  • Clear goals and unambiguous feedback

  • Action-awareness merging

  • Complete concentration

  • Sense of control

  • Loss of self consciousness

  • Autotelic experience


Who experiences flow?

  • Universal across classes, genders, age, cultures

  • But there are individual differences in capacity to experience flow


3/12


Big 5 personality trait associated with flow

  • conscientiousness-> negatively correlated with neuroticism and positively correlated with conscientiousness


What happens to the brain during flow?

  • Decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex

  • Synchronization of cognitive control and reward networks

  • Increased dopamine activity


Benefits of Flow

  • Psychological benefits

  • Focus on concentration

  • Intrinsic motivation

  • Emotional well-being and happiness

  • Emotional regulation


  • Cognitive benefits

  • Learning and skill development

  • Creativity and problem solving

  • Faster mastery


  • Practical benefits

  • Work and productivity

  • Education and learning

  • Sports

  • The artsĀ 


Examples of flow activities

  • Listening to or playing musicĀ 

  • sports/athletics

  • Video games/technology

  • Work tasks

  • hobbies

  • Can be solitary or social


  • Jobs that have autonomy, creativity, complexity produce flow but flow can still happen in any jobĀ 


Suggestions for achieving flow

  • Eliminate external distractions

  • Eliminate internal distractions

  • Work at your biological peak time

  • Listen to music

  • Work on one very specific task at a time

  • Choose the right level of challenge

  • Have a clear outcome or goal

  • Create a mental cue