PSYCH2GG3 - Chapter1 Part 2
PSYCH2GG3 - Chapter 1 Part 2
People Who Shaped Modern Psychology
John Broadus Watson (1878 - 1958)
Core Idea: Argued for the profound influence of environment on shaping an individual's behaviour.
Famous Quote: "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief…"
Burrhus Fredric Skinner (1904 - 1990)
Central Concept: Behaviour is primarily shaped by its consequences.
Mechanism: Reinforcement (positive or negative) or punishment.
Associated Theory: Behaviourism: Operant Conditioning / Instrumental Learning.
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 - 1949)
Law of Effect: Behaviours that are followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by negative outcomes are less likely to recur.
Implication: Consequences directly influence future behaviour.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936)
Discovery: Accidentally found that associations could be formed between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring reflex.
Associated Theory: Classical Conditioning.
Albert Bandura (1925 - 2021 )
Key Concept 1: Self-Efficacy: Introduced the concept of self-efficacy, defined as a person's belief in their ability to succeed in different situations or accomplish specific tasks.
Key Concept 2: Observational Learning: Demonstrated that individuals can learn new behaviours simply by observing others.
Associated Theory: Social Learning Theory.
The Issue of Diversity in Academia
Importance: The first chapter and tutorial encourage students to reflect on why learning about scientists from diverse backgrounds is crucial.
Highlighted Women Scientists: Hopi E. Hoekstra, Jane Goodall, Cissy Ballen are specifically mentioned.
"A scientist like me: demographic analysis of biology textbooks reveals both progress and long-term lags" (Report)
This report highlights findings on diversity within scientific representation.
Diversity Matters (2015) - Hunt, Layton, & Prince (McKinsey)
Research Scope: Examined proprietary datasets from 366 public companies across various industries.
Geographic Focus: Canada, Latin America, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Metrics Analyzed: Financial results and the composition of top management and boards.
Key Findings:
Racial and Ethnic Diversity: Companies in the top quartile for racial and ethnic diversity were 35 percent more likely to have financial returns above their respective national industry medians.
Gender Diversity: Companies in the top quartile for gender diversity were 15 percent more likely to have financial returns above their respective national industry medians.
Lack of Diversity: Companies falling into the bottom quartile for both gender and for ethnicity and race were statistically less likely to achieve above-average financial returns compared to the average companies in the dataset.
Katherine Phillips's Study on Diverse Teams (Northwestern University)
Researchers: Phillips, Liljenquist, & Neale (2009)
Study Design: Participants were divided into four-member groups to review interviews related to a murder investigation.
"Old-timers": Three members from the same sorority or fraternity.
"Newcomer": The fourth member, who was either from the same sorority/fraternity (in-group) or a different one (out-group).
Procedure: The "old-timers" discussed their likely murder suspect for five minutes before the newcomer joined and shared their opinion.
Results:
Groups with out-group newcomers (from a different sorority/fraternity) reported feeling less confident about their decisions.
Crucially, these groups were more likely to correctly identify the suspect than groups with in-group newcomers.
Implication: Diversity, even if it introduces discomfort, can lead to superior decision-making and outcomes.
Action Item 1: Form Study Groups with New Friends!
This action item directly encourages students to embrace diversity in their study habits, building on the evidence presented regarding diverse teams.
Understanding Choice and Habit Formation
Emily Falk, Ph.D. - Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania
Mission of the Communication Neuroscience Lab: To increase health and happiness for people and the planet.
Core Brain Networks for Choice: The value system and self-relevance system are two fundamental networks in the brain that influence how choices are made, often unconsciously.
Value System: Helps assess what is worth our time, attention, and effort. It calculates the potential reward of each option, essentially asking, "What's the likely possibility for reward here?"
Self-Relevance System: Aids in identifying things that relate to "me" or are distinct from "not me."
Study on Vegetable Intake Labels (Emily Falk's Research)
Objective: Investigated whether taste-focused labels, compared to health-focused labels, would increase vegetable intake.
Setting: Five university dining halls across the United States.
Methodology: On each day at each school, vegetables were randomly assigned one of three labels in a 1:1:1 ratio: taste-focused, health-focused, or a basic, nondescriptive label. Each vegetable dish received each label once.
Label Examples:
Taste-focused: "Herb n’ Honey Balsamic Glazed Turnips," "Sizzlin’ Szechuan Green Beans with Toasted Garlic."
Health-focused: "Healthy Choice Turnips," "Nutritious Green Beans."
Basic: "Turnips," "Green Beans" (nondescriptive).
Results: The study found that when taste-focused labels were used, people chose and consumed significantly more vegetables compared to when health-focused or basic labels were presented, even though the vegetable dish itself remained exactly the same.
Explanation: When people prioritize the immediate (more gratifying) consequence of their choices, such as taste, it can shift the focus of their value system. "Foregrounding" means bringing something into focus or giving it more attention, which is what the taste labels did.
Self-Relevance System & Identity
Concept: Our self-identities have core elements. If a behaviour aligns with a core identity, it is more likely to be adopted.
Example: "I’m a super-organized person, so I stay on top of things, like studying regularly for tests and exams." This statement connects the habit of studying to a self-identity of being organized.
Action Item 2: Develop Study Habits Using Value and Self-Relevance Systems
Reflect on how the value and self-relevance systems apply to your personal motivation and habit formation for studying.
The Habit Loop: Cue, Routine, Reward
Concept: Chunking and Habit Formation: The brain's process of converting a sequence of actions into an automatic routine is known as "chunking." This is fundamental to how habits are formed.
Behavioural Chunks: Our daily lives consist of dozens, even hundreds, of these behavioural chunks, ranging from simple (e.g., putting toothpaste on a toothbrush) to complex (e.g., getting dressed, making kids' lunches).
Complex Actions Becoming Habits: The brain, as a product of evolution, can transform highly complex sequences of actions into effortless, automatic habits. For instance, backing a car out of a driveway, initially demanding intense concentration and sequential steps, eventually becomes second nature.
Components of the Habit Loop:
### Cue (or Trigger)
Definition: The initial component of the habit loop, serving as a signal that initiates the habit.
Types:
Internal Cues: Emotions (e.g., stress, boredom) or physical sensations (e.g., hunger).
External Cues: Specific times of day, locations, people, or objects.
Function: Cues are essential because they prompt your brain to initiate a particular habit, creating an automatic response to a given situation or context.
### Routine (or Behaviour)
Definition: The actual behaviour or action performed in response to the cue; it is the habit itself.
Nature: Consistently repeated actions in a specific context.
Types: Can be positive or negative behaviours depending on the individual and context.
Function: Routines form the core of the habit loop.
### Reward
Definition: The positive outcome that reinforces the habit and provides motivation to continue.
Applying the Habit Loop to Study Habits
Cue (Triggering Study)
Specific Time/Place: Choose a consistent time (e.g., fixed afternoon/evening slot) or place to study each day.
Environmental Cues: Utilize visible reminders, such as placing your books prominently or setting a phone reminder.
Habit Pairing: Link studying with an existing, well-established habit, such as starting immediately after breakfast or after a workout, to make it easier to remember.
Routine (The Act of Studying)
Manageable Sessions: Begin with shorter, focused study sessions, perhaps 25-30 minutes (consider using the Pomodoro Technique).
Structured Routine: Establish a specific study routine that works for you, such as creating practice questions after reading a slide or summarizing paragraphs on platforms like Top Hat.
Track Progress: Log your study time or completed tasks to foster a sense of accomplishment and track consistency.
Reward (Reinforcing the Habit)
Immediate Rewards: After each study session, give yourself a small, enjoyable reward, such as a snack, a short walk, or a brief social media break.
Long-Term Rewards: Set bigger, long-term rewards for achieving significant milestones, such as treating yourself after completing a certain number of study hours or finishing a major assignment.
Intrinsic Motivation: Reflect on how consistent studying contributes to your long-term goals (e.g., achieving good grades, gaining a sense of mastery or achievement) to cultivate intrinsic motivation for maintaining the habit.