Week 8 Key Words Rome

27 BCE:

• When: 27 BCE.

• What: This year marks the official beginning of the Roman Empire. It is when Octavian formally handed back his authority to the Senate and the Roman people, but in return received the title Augustus and was granted control over several key provinces for ten years. This event is known as the First Settlement.

• Who: The key figure is Octavian, who becomes Augustus. The Senate and the Roman people were also involved in this political settlement.

• Where: This occurred in Rome.

• Why: This marked a transition from the Roman Republic to the Principate under Augustus. While maintaining the facade of the Republic, Augustus consolidated significant power for himself. This was a crucial step in establishing one-man rule.

• General Context: The defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE left Octavian as the sole leader of Rome. However, to avoid appearing as a king, he strategically used traditional Republican institutions to exert and maintain power, leading to the establishment of the Principate in 27 BCE.

• Definition: The year traditionally recognized as the start of the Roman Empire, signifying the shift from the Republic to the rule of an emperor, beginning with Augustus.

Imperium:

• Definition: From the verb imperare, 'to command'. It refers to the supreme authority in Rome's affairs vested in certain officeholders, who alone could command troops and impose the death penalty. The imperium held by emperors was made maius ('greater') so that it outranked that of all other holders.

• Who: Initially held by certain Republican officeholders like consuls and praetors, it became a key power of the emperors.

• What: It was the supreme command authority, particularly military command but also the power of coercion within Rome.

• Where: Exercised throughout Rome and its provinces.

• Why: It was essential for maintaining order, leading the military, and enforcing laws. Augustus retained imperium after the First Settlement.

• When: A concept throughout Roman history, it became central to imperial power from 27 BCE onwards.

• General Context: In the Republican era, imperium was associated with elected magistrates. Under the Empire, it became a fundamental attribute of the emperor's authority, underpinning their control over the military and their ability to govern.

Imperium consulare maius:

• Definition: Greater consular power.

• What: This was a specific grant of power to Augustus during the Second Settlement in 23 BCE. It meant that his imperium was greater than that of any other proconsul.

• Who: Granted to Augustus by the Senate.

• Where: Applicable throughout the Roman provinces and superior to the authority of provincial governors.

• Why: This further solidified Augustus's authority over the provinces, even after he resigned the consulship, ensuring his continued control over key military regions.

• When: Granted to Augustus in 23 BCE.

• General Context: Following the First Settlement in 27 BCE, Augustus sought to refine his powers. The Second Settlement addressed some ambiguities and further entrenched his authority, with imperium consulare maius being a critical component in his continued dominance.

Imperial province:

• Definition: Provinces governed by legati Augusti pro praetore, who were former consuls or praetors appointed by the emperor, often with an equestrian procurator managing finances. These provinces typically were instable or newly acquired and contained the bulk of the soldiers. Examples include Egypt, Gaul, Germania, and Judaea.

• Who: Governed by the emperor's appointees (legati Augusti pro praetore).

• What: These were a category of Roman provinces under the direct control of the emperor.

• Where: Located throughout the Roman Empire, often on the frontiers or in strategically important regions.

• Why: The emperor maintained direct control over these provinces due to their military significance or instability, allowing him to command the legions stationed there. This was part of Augustus's provincial policies after establishing the Empire.

• When: Established by Augustus after 27 BCE as part of his reorganization of the provinces.

• General Context: Augustus divided the Roman provinces into two types: senatorial and imperial. This division allowed him to retain control over the military strength of the empire while allowing the Senate to govern more pacified regions.

Senatorial province:

• Definition: Stable Roman provinces that did not require a large military presence. They were governed by proconsuls, who were former consuls or praetors appointed by the Senate. Examples include Africa, Bithynia and Pontus, and Macedonia.

• Who: Governed by proconsuls appointed by the Senate.

• What: A category of Roman provinces under the administration of the Senate.

• Where: Located throughout the Roman Empire, typically older and more pacified regions.

• Why: Augustus allowed the Senate to govern these provinces as a gesture of maintaining Republican traditions and because they did not pose a significant military threat requiring imperial oversight.

• When: Established by Augustus after 27 BCE as part of his reorganization of the provinces.

• General Context: The division of provinces between the emperor and the Senate was a key element of Augustus's strategy to balance his autocratic rule with the appearance of Republican continuity.

Aerarium militare:

• Definition: A fund for veterans.

• What: This was a new treasury established by Augustus in 6 AD. It provided land and money for discharged veterans.

• Who: Established by Augustus.

• Where: Based in Rome, but its impact was felt throughout the empire as veterans were settled in various regions.

• Why: Augustus created this fund to ensure the loyalty of the military by providing for their retirement. It was funded by taxes on inheritance and sales. Previously, there was no dedicated fund for veterans, which could lead to instability.

• When: Established in 6 AD.

• General Context: Military reforms were a crucial aspect of Augustus's rule. By ensuring the welfare of veterans, he aimed to create a professional and loyal army, reducing the potential for military unrest.

Virgil:

• Who: A prominent 'Augustean' writer.

• What: He was known for his epic poem, the Aeneid.

• Where: He lived and worked in the Roman world during the reign of Augustus.

• Why: Virgil was part of a literary boom during Augustus's time, supported by patronage. His works often reflected the Beneficial Ideology and aimed to glorify Rome and Augustus.

• When: Lived from approximately 70-19 BCE.

• General Context: Augustus recognized the importance of culture in solidifying his rule and fostering a sense of Roman identity. He supported writers like Virgil, whose works contributed to the Beneficial Ideology by celebrating Roman achievements and values.

Res Gestae:

• Definition: "Deeds Accomplished".

• What: This was an autobiographical account written by Augustus towards the end of his life. It detailed his achievements and presented his own narrative of his reign.

• Who: Written by Augustus himself.

• Where: Intended for public display, often inscribed on bronze tablets placed in front of his mausoleum.

• Why: Augustus used this document for self-representation, emphasizing his restraint, responsibility, honor, and role as a pacifier. It served as a form of propaganda to legitimize his rule and present his legacy in a favorable light.

• When: Written towards the end of Augustus's reign (died 14 AD).

• General Context: In an era without widespread media, the Res Gestae was a powerful tool for Augustus to shape public perception of his accomplishments and the nature of his rule.

Beneficial Ideology:

• Definition: The idea that the emperors were generous benefactors.

• What: This was a key aspect of imperial power ideology, emphasizing the conscious magnanimity of the emperors through actions such as legislations to the disadvantaged, public buildings and spaces, cheap food (annona, alimenta), lavish entertainment, and fiscal privileges. It also included the encouragement of provincial equites and senators. The saying "panem et circenses" ("bread and circuses") encapsulates this idea.

• Who: Promoted by the emperors and their supporters.

• Where: Implemented and visible throughout the Roman Empire, particularly in urban centers.

• Why: This ideology aimed to legitimize imperial rule by portraying the emperor as a benevolent provider and guarantor of prosperity and entertainment, thus fostering popular support.

• When: Developed and emphasized from the reign of Augustus onwards.

• General Context: The transition from Republic to Empire required new forms of justification for one-man rule. The Beneficial Ideology provided this by focusing on the perceived benefits that imperial rule brought to the Roman people.

Imperial Cult:

• Definition: A religious and societal phenomenon where different forms of cult were rendered throughout the Roman Empire to emperors and members of the imperial house.

• What: This involved the veneration of deified emperors, deified members of the imperial house, the emperor's numen (power of decision), the emperor's genius (protective divine power), and even living emperors (on their birthdays). Practices included prayers, sacrifices, annual oaths of allegiance, games, festivals, and processions. It was often expressed through temples and statues.

• Who: Emperors and the imperial family were the focus of this cult, but it was practiced by towns, communities, members of the imperial family, and legions, often through local initiatives.

• Where: Practiced throughout the Roman Empire.

• Why: The Imperial Cult served as a unifying agent, surpassing regional differences and fostering a sense of loyalty to the emperor and Rome. It also provided a religious dimension to imperial authority.

• When: Its origins can be traced to Eastern practices (Alexander the Great), Roman national origins, and indigenous traditions (Spain), developing throughout the imperial period from Augustus onwards.

• General Context: While Augustus was careful not to demand outright worship of himself, the Imperial Cult gradually developed as a way for subjects across the vast empire to express their allegiance and connect with the ruling power on a religious level.

Jewish Revolt:

• What: A major internal uprising that occurred in Judaea.

• Who: Primarily involved the Jewish population of Judaea against Roman rule.

• Where: Took place in the province of Judaea.

• Why: This revolt was driven by a complex mix of religious, political, and social tensions against Roman administration.

• When: The major revolt mentioned in the context of the Julio-Claudians and Flavians occurred from 66-73 AD.

• General Context: Roman rule in Judaea was often fraught with tension. The Jewish Revolt was a significant challenge to imperial authority in the eastern part of the empire during this period. The Flavian emperors ultimately suppressed this revolt.

Augustus:

• Who: The first Roman Emperor. Born Octavian, he received the title Augustus in 27 BCE.

• What: He was the sole leader of Rome after the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. He strategically used traditional Republican institutions to establish the Principate, a form of autocratic rule disguised within Republican structures. His reign saw significant military, administrative, provincial, urban, and cultural reforms. He is known for the First and Second Settlements which defined the nature of his power.

• Where: He ruled Rome and its vast empire.

• Why: After decades of civil war, Augustus aimed to bring peace and stability to the Roman world. He consolidated power to prevent further conflict and laid the foundation for centuries of imperial rule.

• When: His reign is typically dated from 27 BCE to 14 AD.

• General Context: Augustus's rise marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. His long and influential reign shaped the political, social, and cultural landscape of the Roman world for centuries to come.

Auctoritas:

• Definition: Unofficial influence exerted by, and prestige enjoyed by, those individuals or corporate bodies whose advice and recommendations gain special respect.

• What: This was a key concept for Augustus. While he avoided holding overtly monarchical titles, his auctoritas was immense due to his achievements, reputation, and the widespread respect he commanded. It was a more subtle form of power than formal imperium.

• Who: Notably possessed by Augustus and other influential figures in Roman society.

• Where: Effective throughout the Roman state and society.

• Why: Augustus used his auctoritas to guide the Senate and the Roman people, effectively shaping policy and maintaining control without explicitly dictating.

• When: A significant factor throughout Roman history, it was particularly important during the transition from Republic to Principate under Augustus (27 BCE - 14 AD).

• General Context: In the Roman political system, auctoritas was a vital component of influence. Augustus skillfully cultivated and utilized his auctoritas as a cornerstone of his power, working alongside his formal powers like imperium.

Princeps:

• Definition: Lit. 'leading figure'. During the Republic, an informal general term for the senators who carried the greatest weight in matters of state. It appealed to Augustus as the unassuming term that best fitted the position which he developed for himself.

• What: Augustus adopted this title to denote his primary position in the state without appearing as a monarch. The era of Roman history from 27 BCE to the late 3rd century CE is often referred to as the Principate due to this title held by the emperors.

• Who: Primarily associated with the Roman emperors during the early imperial period, starting with Augustus.

• Where: Applied to the leader of the Roman state.

• Why: Augustus chose this title to maintain a semblance of Republicanism while consolidating his power.

• When: Became the primary title for the Roman ruler starting in 27 BCE with Augustus.

• General Context: The title princeps reflects Augustus's strategy of gradually accumulating power while respecting (at least in appearance) the traditional institutions of the Republic. The Principate was characterized by this careful balancing act.

Imperator:

• Definition: Originally a title for successful military commanders. From Augustus's time it was used of the 'emperor' and from the Flavians (68 AD onwards) it was a regular imperial title.

• What: It became one of the key titles held by the Roman emperors, signifying their military authority.

• Who: Initially given to victorious generals, it became associated with the Roman emperors, especially from the Flavian dynasty onwards.

• Where: Reflects the emperor's command over the Roman military throughout the empire.

• Why: The association of the ruler with military success was crucial for maintaining power and legitimacy in the Roman world.

• When: Used for successful military commanders throughout Roman history, it became a regular imperial title from the Flavian period (69-96 AD). Augustus also used it.

• General Context: The evolution of the title imperator illustrates the increasing militarization of Roman imperial power. While Augustus was careful with his titles, later emperors embraced imperator as a standard part of their nomenclature, highlighting their role as commanders-in-chief.