Science exam stuff
Variation: Differences in traits among individuals.
Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction without the fusion of gametes; offspring are genetically identical to the parent.
Sexual Reproduction: Involves the fusion of male and female gametes, resulting in genetic variation.
Gamete: Reproductive cell (sperm or egg) that carries genetic information.
Organism: Any living entity that can function independently.
Cell: Basic unit of life; contains organelles and genetic material.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid; molecule that carries genetic instructions.
Gene: Segment of DNA that encodes a specific trait.
Chromosome: Structure in the nucleus containing genetic information; humans have 46 (23 pairs).
Nucleotide: Building blocks of DNA, consisting of a sugar, phosphate, and base.
Allele: Different forms of a gene that determine specific traits.
Karyotype: A visual representation of an organism's chromosomes.
Punnett Squares: Diagrams used to predict genetic outcomes of crosses.
Dominant Allele: Allele that expresses its trait even in the presence of a recessive allele.
Recessive Allele: Allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present.
Purebred Organism: Organism with identical alleles for a trait.
Pedigree Chart: Diagram showing the genetic history of a family.
Puberty: Developmental stage where individuals become capable of reproduction.
Hormone: Chemical messenger regulating physiological processes.
Testes: Male reproductive organs producing sperm and hormones.
Ovaries: Female reproductive organs producing eggs and hormones.
Physical Change: Change affecting form but not chemical composition.
Chemical Change: Change resulting in the formation of new substances.
Atom: Basic unit of matter.
Proton: Positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron: Negatively charged particle orbiting the nucleus.
Neutron: Neutral particle in the nucleus.
Nucleus: Center of an atom containing protons and neutrons.
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Hot Spot Volcano: Volcano formed over a mantle plume, independent of tectonic plate boundaries.
Convection Current: Movement of fluid caused by temperature differences, driving plate tectonics.
Crust: Earth's outermost layer, composed of solid rock.
Mantle: Layer beneath the crust, composed of semi-solid rock.
Outer Core: Liquid layer of iron and nickel beneath the mantle.
Inner Core: Solid center of the Earth, composed mainly of iron.
Magma: Molten rock beneath the Earth's surface.
Lava: Magma that reaches the Earth's surface.
Lava Field: Expansive area covered by solidified lava.
Scoria Cone: Small, steep-sided volcano formed from volcanic debris.
Lava Cave: Cave formed by flowing lava that drains away.
Moat: Depression around a volcano, often filled with water.
Scoria Rock: Volcanic rock with a vesicular texture, formed from lava.
Basalt Rock: Dark, fine-grained volcanic rock formed from solidified lava.
Silica: Compound (SiO₂) that affects magma viscosity.
Viscosity: Measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
Weathering: Breakdown of rocks due to environmental factors.
Primary Succession: Ecological succession occurring in lifeless areas
Physical Change: A change that affects one or more physical properties of a substance without altering its chemical composition.
Chemical Change: A change that results in the formation of new chemical substances.
Atom: The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Proton: A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron: A negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron: A neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleus: The central part of an atom, containing protons and neutrons.
Element: A pure substance made of only one type of atom.
Ion: An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a charge.
Compound: A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond together.
Chemical Reaction: A process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.
Chemical Word Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products.
Chemical Symbol Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using chemical symbols and formulas.
Conservation of Mass: A principle stating that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Acid: A substance that donates protons (H⁺ ions) in a solution.
Base: A substance that accepts protons or donates hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in a solution.
Alkali: A type of base that dissolves in water and produces hydroxide ions.
Concentrated: A solution that has a large amount of solute relative to the solvent.
Dilute: A solution that has a small amount of solute relative to the solvent.
Neutralisation: A chemical reaction between an acid and a base that produces water and a salt.
Litmus Paper: A pH indicator used to test whether a solution is acidic or basic.
Universal Indicator: A pH indicator that changes color to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Physical Change: A transformation affecting physical properties without altering chemical composition (e.g., melting ice).
Chemical Change: A process forming new substances through bond changes (e.g., rusting iron).
Atom: The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Proton: A positively charged particle in the nucleus, defining an element's identity.
Electron: A negatively charged particle orbiting the nucleus, essential for bonding.
Neutron: A neutral particle in the nucleus, stabilizing it and contributing to atomic mass.
Nucleus: The dense, positively charged center of an atom containing protons and neutrons.
Element: A pure substance made of one type of atom.
Ion: An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to loss or gain of electrons.
Compound: A substance formed from two or more different elements chemically bonded.
Chemical Reaction: A process where reactants transform into products.
Chemical Word Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using words.
Chemical Symbol Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using symbols and formulas.
Conservation of Mass: The principle stating mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Acid: A substance that donates protons (H⁺) in a reaction.
Base: A substance that accepts protons or donates hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
Alkali: A type of base that dissolves in water, producing hydroxide ions.
Concentrated: A solution with a high amount of solute relative to solvent.
Dilute: A solution with a low amount of solute relative to solvent.
Neutralisation: A reaction between an acid and a base producing salt and water.
Litmus Paper: A pH indicator used to test acidity or alkalinity.
Universal Indicator: A pH indicator that shows a range of colors for different pH levels
A change that affects one or more physical properties of a substance without altering its chemical composition (e.g., melting, freezing).
A process where substances transform into different substances with new chemical properties (e.g., rusting, combustion).
The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom; defines the element's identity.
A negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom; involved in chemical bonding.
A neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom; contributes to the atomic mass.
The central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons; positively charged.
A pure substance made of only one type of atom; cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net charge (e.g., Na⁺, Cl⁻).
A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond together in fixed proportions (e.g., H₂O).
A process where reactants are transformed into products through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.
A representation of a chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products (e.g., Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water).
A representation of a chemical reaction using chemical symbols and formulas (e.g., 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O).
A principle stating that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction; the mass of reactants equals the mass of products.
A substance that donates protons (H⁺ ions) in a solution; typically has a sour taste and pH < 7.
A substance that accepts protons or donates hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in a solution; typically has a bitter taste and pH > 7.
A type of base that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions; often refers to soluble bases like sodium hydroxide.
A solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the solvent.
A change that affects one or more physical properties of a substance without altering its chemical composition. Examples include processes such as melting, where a solid turns into a liquid when heated, and freezing, where a liquid becomes a solid as it cools. Other examples of physical changes include dissolving sugar in water, chopping wood, or breaking glass, all of which do not change the fundamental nature of the substances involved.
A process where substances undergo a transformation to become different substances with new chemical properties. This can occur through various reactions, such as rusting of iron when it reacts with oxygen and moisture in the air, or combustion, where a substance reacts with oxygen to produce heat and light, resulting in new products like carbon dioxide and water. Chemical changes are often indicated by color changes, gas production, or the formation of a precipitate.
The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter, and they combine in various ways to form molecules and compounds. Each atom has a nucleus at its center, surrounded by a cloud of electrons that determine its chemical behavior.
A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it defines the element's identity. The number of protons in an atom's nucleus is known as its atomic number, which determines the element's position on the periodic table. For instance, hydrogen has one proton, while carbon has six.
A negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom in various energy levels or shells. Electrons play a crucial role in chemical bonding and reactions, as they can be shared or transferred between atoms, leading to the formation of ionic or covalent bonds.
A neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it contributes to the atomic mass along with protons. Neutrons help stabilize the nucleus, and variations in the number of neutrons result in different isotopes of an element, which can have distinct physical properties.
The central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons; it is positively charged due to the presence of protons. The nucleus is incredibly dense and contains most of the atom's mass, while the electrons occupy the surrounding space.
A pure substance made of only one type of atom; it cannot be
.Geology Vocabulary List
Hot spot volcano
A type of volcano that forms above a hot spot, an area where magma from deep within the mantle melts through the crust, often far from tectonic plate boundaries.
Convection current
The movement of fluid in the mantle caused by the heat from the Earth's core, which creates a circular pattern of rising hot material and sinking cooler material. These currents drive the movement of tectonic plates.
Crust
The outermost layer of the Earth, composed of solid rocks. It is thinner under the oceans (oceanic crust) and thicker under the continents (continental crust).
Mantle
The thick layer of the Earth located between the crust and the core, composed of silicate rocks that are semi-solid and capable of slow flow.
Outer core
The liquid layer of the Earth's core, composed mainly of iron and nickel, located between the mantle and the inner core. It generates Earth's magnetic field.
Inner core
The solid, dense center of the Earth, composed mainly of iron and nickel. It remains solid due to the immense pressure despite its high temperature.
Magma
Molten rock found beneath the Earth's surface. When magma reaches the surface, it is known as lava.
Lava
Molten rock that erupts from a volcano or fissure and solidifies as it cools. Lava is magma that has reached the Earth's surface.
Lava field
A large expanse of solidified lava, often created by multiple eruptions that spread lava over wide areas.
Scoria cone
A small, steep-sided volcano formed from the accumulation of volcanic fragments called scoria, which are ejected during eruptions.
Lava cave
A natural tunnel formed within solidified lava as the molten rock continues to flow beneath the surface.
Moat
In geology, a depression or trough surrounding a volcanic cone, often filled with water or sediments.
Scoria rock
A porous volcanic rock that forms when gas-rich magma cools rapidly, trapping gas bubbles inside.
Basalt rock
A dark, dense igneous rock that forms from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava, commonly found in oceanic crust.
Silica
A mineral made of silicon and oxygen. It is a major component of many rocks and influences the viscosity of magma.
Viscosity
A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. In geology, it refers to how easily magma or lava can flow, depending on its composition.
Weathering
The breakdown of rocks and minerals at the Earth's surface due to physical, chemical, or biological processes.
Primary succession
The process of life colonizing a barren environment, such as newly formed volcanic rock, where no soil or organisms previously existed.
Physical change
A change in the form or state of a substance without changing its chemical composition, such as melting, freezing, or dissolving.
Chemical change
A process in which substances react to form new substances with different properties, involving changes in chemical bonds.
Atom
The basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
Proton
A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron
A negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron
A subatomic particle with no charge, found in the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleus
The central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons, accounting for most of the atom's mass.
Element
A pure substance made of only one type of atom, characterized by a specific number of protons in the nucleus.
Ion
An atom or molecule with an electric charge due to the loss or gain of electrons.
Compound
A substance formed when two or more elements chemically combine in fixed ratios.
Chemical reaction
A process in which reactants are transformed into products, involving breaking and forming of chemical bonds.
Chemical word equation
A way to represent a chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products.
Chemical symbol equation
A representation of a chemical reaction using chemical formulas and symbols.
Conservation of mass
A principle stating that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Acid
A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution, having a pH less than 7.
Base
A substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution, often releasing hydroxide ions (OH⁻) and having a pH greater than 7.
Alkali
A soluble base that releases hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in solution.
Concentrated
A solution with a high amount of solute relative to the amount of solvent.
Dilute
A solution with a low amount of solute relative to the amount of solvent.
Neutralisation
A chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to form water and a salt, usually resulting in a pH closer to 7.
Litmus paper
An indicator used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic. It turns red in acid and blue in base.
Universal indicator
A pH indicator that changes color based on the acidity or basicity of a solution, showing a range of colors from red (acid) to purple (base).
Reproduction
The biological process by which new individual organisms are produced from their parents.
Variation
Differences in characteristics between individuals in a population, often due to genetic differences.
Asexual reproduction
A type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
Sexual reproduction
A form of reproduction involving the fusion of two gametes (sperm and egg), resulting in genetically diverse offspring.
Gamete
A reproductive cell (sperm in males, egg in females) that contains half the number of chromosomes of a normal cell.
Organism
A living individual entity that can carry out life processes independently.
Cell
The basic unit of life, consisting of a membrane-bound structure that contains organelles and genetic material.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule that contains the genetic code unique to each individual. It serves as an instruction manual for protein synthesis.
Gene
A segment of DNA that carries the information necessary to produce a specific protein or trait.
Chromosome
A thread-like structure located in the nucleus of cells, made of DNA and proteins, carrying genetic information.
Nucleotide
The building block of DNA and RNA, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
Allele
A variant form of a gene that may produce different traits or characteristics.
Karyotype
An organized profile of an individual's chromosomes, used to detect genetic abnormalities.
Punnett squares
Diagrams used to predict the possible genetic outcomes of offspring based on the genetic makeup of the parents.
Dominant allele
An allele that expresses its trait when present in either a single or double copy.
Recessive allele
An allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present and no dominant allele is present.
Purebred organism
An organism that carries identical alleles for a particular trait.
Pedigree chart
A diagram that shows the inheritance pattern of traits across generations in a family.
Puberty
The developmental stage during which an individual becomes capable of reproduction, marked by physical and hormonal changes.
Hormone
A chemical messenger produced by glands in the body, responsible for regulating various physiological processes.
Testes
Male reproductive organs that produce sperm and the hormone testosterone.
Ovaries
Female reproductive organs that produce eggs and the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
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Variation: Differences in traits among individuals.
Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction without the fusion of gametes; offspring are genetically identical to the parent.
Sexual Reproduction: Involves the fusion of male and female gametes, resulting in genetic variation.
Gamete: Reproductive cell (sperm or egg) that carries genetic information.
Organism: Any living entity that can function independently.
Cell: Basic unit of life; contains organelles and genetic material.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid; molecule that carries genetic instructions.
Gene: Segment of DNA that encodes a specific trait.
Chromosome: Structure in the nucleus containing genetic information; humans have 46 (23 pairs).
Nucleotide: Building blocks of DNA, consisting of a sugar, phosphate, and base.
Allele: Different forms of a gene that determine specific traits.
Karyotype: A visual representation of an organism's chromosomes.
Punnett Squares: Diagrams used to predict genetic outcomes of crosses.
Dominant Allele: Allele that expresses its trait even in the presence of a recessive allele.
Recessive Allele: Allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present.
Purebred Organism: Organism with identical alleles for a trait.
Pedigree Chart: Diagram showing the genetic history of a family.
Puberty: Developmental stage where individuals become capable of reproduction.
Hormone: Chemical messenger regulating physiological processes.
Testes: Male reproductive organs producing sperm and hormones.
Ovaries: Female reproductive organs producing eggs and hormones.
Physical Change: Change affecting form but not chemical composition.
Chemical Change: Change resulting in the formation of new substances.
Atom: Basic unit of matter.
Proton: Positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron: Negatively charged particle orbiting the nucleus.
Neutron: Neutral particle in the nucleus.
Nucleus: Center of an atom containing protons and neutrons.
**
Hot Spot Volcano: Volcano formed over a mantle plume, independent of tectonic plate boundaries.
Convection Current: Movement of fluid caused by temperature differences, driving plate tectonics.
Crust: Earth's outermost layer, composed of solid rock.
Mantle: Layer beneath the crust, composed of semi-solid rock.
Outer Core: Liquid layer of iron and nickel beneath the mantle.
Inner Core: Solid center of the Earth, composed mainly of iron.
Magma: Molten rock beneath the Earth's surface.
Lava: Magma that reaches the Earth's surface.
Lava Field: Expansive area covered by solidified lava.
Scoria Cone: Small, steep-sided volcano formed from volcanic debris.
Lava Cave: Cave formed by flowing lava that drains away.
Moat: Depression around a volcano, often filled with water.
Scoria Rock: Volcanic rock with a vesicular texture, formed from lava.
Basalt Rock: Dark, fine-grained volcanic rock formed from solidified lava.
Silica: Compound (SiO₂) that affects magma viscosity.
Viscosity: Measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
Weathering: Breakdown of rocks due to environmental factors.
Primary Succession: Ecological succession occurring in lifeless areas
Physical Change: A change that affects one or more physical properties of a substance without altering its chemical composition.
Chemical Change: A change that results in the formation of new chemical substances.
Atom: The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Proton: A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron: A negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron: A neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleus: The central part of an atom, containing protons and neutrons.
Element: A pure substance made of only one type of atom.
Ion: An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a charge.
Compound: A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond together.
Chemical Reaction: A process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.
Chemical Word Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products.
Chemical Symbol Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using chemical symbols and formulas.
Conservation of Mass: A principle stating that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Acid: A substance that donates protons (H⁺ ions) in a solution.
Base: A substance that accepts protons or donates hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in a solution.
Alkali: A type of base that dissolves in water and produces hydroxide ions.
Concentrated: A solution that has a large amount of solute relative to the solvent.
Dilute: A solution that has a small amount of solute relative to the solvent.
Neutralisation: A chemical reaction between an acid and a base that produces water and a salt.
Litmus Paper: A pH indicator used to test whether a solution is acidic or basic.
Universal Indicator: A pH indicator that changes color to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Physical Change: A transformation affecting physical properties without altering chemical composition (e.g., melting ice).
Chemical Change: A process forming new substances through bond changes (e.g., rusting iron).
Atom: The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Proton: A positively charged particle in the nucleus, defining an element's identity.
Electron: A negatively charged particle orbiting the nucleus, essential for bonding.
Neutron: A neutral particle in the nucleus, stabilizing it and contributing to atomic mass.
Nucleus: The dense, positively charged center of an atom containing protons and neutrons.
Element: A pure substance made of one type of atom.
Ion: An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to loss or gain of electrons.
Compound: A substance formed from two or more different elements chemically bonded.
Chemical Reaction: A process where reactants transform into products.
Chemical Word Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using words.
Chemical Symbol Equation: A representation of a chemical reaction using symbols and formulas.
Conservation of Mass: The principle stating mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Acid: A substance that donates protons (H⁺) in a reaction.
Base: A substance that accepts protons or donates hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
Alkali: A type of base that dissolves in water, producing hydroxide ions.
Concentrated: A solution with a high amount of solute relative to solvent.
Dilute: A solution with a low amount of solute relative to solvent.
Neutralisation: A reaction between an acid and a base producing salt and water.
Litmus Paper: A pH indicator used to test acidity or alkalinity.
Universal Indicator: A pH indicator that shows a range of colors for different pH levels
A change that affects one or more physical properties of a substance without altering its chemical composition (e.g., melting, freezing).
A process where substances transform into different substances with new chemical properties (e.g., rusting, combustion).
The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom; defines the element's identity.
A negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom; involved in chemical bonding.
A neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom; contributes to the atomic mass.
The central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons; positively charged.
A pure substance made of only one type of atom; cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net charge (e.g., Na⁺, Cl⁻).
A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond together in fixed proportions (e.g., H₂O).
A process where reactants are transformed into products through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.
A representation of a chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products (e.g., Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water).
A representation of a chemical reaction using chemical symbols and formulas (e.g., 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O).
A principle stating that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction; the mass of reactants equals the mass of products.
A substance that donates protons (H⁺ ions) in a solution; typically has a sour taste and pH < 7.
A substance that accepts protons or donates hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in a solution; typically has a bitter taste and pH > 7.
A type of base that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions; often refers to soluble bases like sodium hydroxide.
A solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the solvent.
A change that affects one or more physical properties of a substance without altering its chemical composition. Examples include processes such as melting, where a solid turns into a liquid when heated, and freezing, where a liquid becomes a solid as it cools. Other examples of physical changes include dissolving sugar in water, chopping wood, or breaking glass, all of which do not change the fundamental nature of the substances involved.
A process where substances undergo a transformation to become different substances with new chemical properties. This can occur through various reactions, such as rusting of iron when it reacts with oxygen and moisture in the air, or combustion, where a substance reacts with oxygen to produce heat and light, resulting in new products like carbon dioxide and water. Chemical changes are often indicated by color changes, gas production, or the formation of a precipitate.
The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter, and they combine in various ways to form molecules and compounds. Each atom has a nucleus at its center, surrounded by a cloud of electrons that determine its chemical behavior.
A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it defines the element's identity. The number of protons in an atom's nucleus is known as its atomic number, which determines the element's position on the periodic table. For instance, hydrogen has one proton, while carbon has six.
A negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom in various energy levels or shells. Electrons play a crucial role in chemical bonding and reactions, as they can be shared or transferred between atoms, leading to the formation of ionic or covalent bonds.
A neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it contributes to the atomic mass along with protons. Neutrons help stabilize the nucleus, and variations in the number of neutrons result in different isotopes of an element, which can have distinct physical properties.
The central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons; it is positively charged due to the presence of protons. The nucleus is incredibly dense and contains most of the atom's mass, while the electrons occupy the surrounding space.
A pure substance made of only one type of atom; it cannot be
.Geology Vocabulary List
Hot spot volcano
A type of volcano that forms above a hot spot, an area where magma from deep within the mantle melts through the crust, often far from tectonic plate boundaries.
Convection current
The movement of fluid in the mantle caused by the heat from the Earth's core, which creates a circular pattern of rising hot material and sinking cooler material. These currents drive the movement of tectonic plates.
Crust
The outermost layer of the Earth, composed of solid rocks. It is thinner under the oceans (oceanic crust) and thicker under the continents (continental crust).
Mantle
The thick layer of the Earth located between the crust and the core, composed of silicate rocks that are semi-solid and capable of slow flow.
Outer core
The liquid layer of the Earth's core, composed mainly of iron and nickel, located between the mantle and the inner core. It generates Earth's magnetic field.
Inner core
The solid, dense center of the Earth, composed mainly of iron and nickel. It remains solid due to the immense pressure despite its high temperature.
Magma
Molten rock found beneath the Earth's surface. When magma reaches the surface, it is known as lava.
Lava
Molten rock that erupts from a volcano or fissure and solidifies as it cools. Lava is magma that has reached the Earth's surface.
Lava field
A large expanse of solidified lava, often created by multiple eruptions that spread lava over wide areas.
Scoria cone
A small, steep-sided volcano formed from the accumulation of volcanic fragments called scoria, which are ejected during eruptions.
Lava cave
A natural tunnel formed within solidified lava as the molten rock continues to flow beneath the surface.
Moat
In geology, a depression or trough surrounding a volcanic cone, often filled with water or sediments.
Scoria rock
A porous volcanic rock that forms when gas-rich magma cools rapidly, trapping gas bubbles inside.
Basalt rock
A dark, dense igneous rock that forms from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava, commonly found in oceanic crust.
Silica
A mineral made of silicon and oxygen. It is a major component of many rocks and influences the viscosity of magma.
Viscosity
A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. In geology, it refers to how easily magma or lava can flow, depending on its composition.
Weathering
The breakdown of rocks and minerals at the Earth's surface due to physical, chemical, or biological processes.
Primary succession
The process of life colonizing a barren environment, such as newly formed volcanic rock, where no soil or organisms previously existed.
Physical change
A change in the form or state of a substance without changing its chemical composition, such as melting, freezing, or dissolving.
Chemical change
A process in which substances react to form new substances with different properties, involving changes in chemical bonds.
Atom
The basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
Proton
A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron
A negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron
A subatomic particle with no charge, found in the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleus
The central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons, accounting for most of the atom's mass.
Element
A pure substance made of only one type of atom, characterized by a specific number of protons in the nucleus.
Ion
An atom or molecule with an electric charge due to the loss or gain of electrons.
Compound
A substance formed when two or more elements chemically combine in fixed ratios.
Chemical reaction
A process in which reactants are transformed into products, involving breaking and forming of chemical bonds.
Chemical word equation
A way to represent a chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products.
Chemical symbol equation
A representation of a chemical reaction using chemical formulas and symbols.
Conservation of mass
A principle stating that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Acid
A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution, having a pH less than 7.
Base
A substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution, often releasing hydroxide ions (OH⁻) and having a pH greater than 7.
Alkali
A soluble base that releases hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in solution.
Concentrated
A solution with a high amount of solute relative to the amount of solvent.
Dilute
A solution with a low amount of solute relative to the amount of solvent.
Neutralisation
A chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to form water and a salt, usually resulting in a pH closer to 7.
Litmus paper
An indicator used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic. It turns red in acid and blue in base.
Universal indicator
A pH indicator that changes color based on the acidity or basicity of a solution, showing a range of colors from red (acid) to purple (base).
Reproduction
The biological process by which new individual organisms are produced from their parents.
Variation
Differences in characteristics between individuals in a population, often due to genetic differences.
Asexual reproduction
A type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
Sexual reproduction
A form of reproduction involving the fusion of two gametes (sperm and egg), resulting in genetically diverse offspring.
Gamete
A reproductive cell (sperm in males, egg in females) that contains half the number of chromosomes of a normal cell.
Organism
A living individual entity that can carry out life processes independently.
Cell
The basic unit of life, consisting of a membrane-bound structure that contains organelles and genetic material.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule that contains the genetic code unique to each individual. It serves as an instruction manual for protein synthesis.
Gene
A segment of DNA that carries the information necessary to produce a specific protein or trait.
Chromosome
A thread-like structure located in the nucleus of cells, made of DNA and proteins, carrying genetic information.
Nucleotide
The building block of DNA and RNA, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
Allele
A variant form of a gene that may produce different traits or characteristics.
Karyotype
An organized profile of an individual's chromosomes, used to detect genetic abnormalities.
Punnett squares
Diagrams used to predict the possible genetic outcomes of offspring based on the genetic makeup of the parents.
Dominant allele
An allele that expresses its trait when present in either a single or double copy.
Recessive allele
An allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present and no dominant allele is present.
Purebred organism
An organism that carries identical alleles for a particular trait.
Pedigree chart
A diagram that shows the inheritance pattern of traits across generations in a family.
Puberty
The developmental stage during which an individual becomes capable of reproduction, marked by physical and hormonal changes.
Hormone
A chemical messenger produced by glands in the body, responsible for regulating various physiological processes.
Testes
Male reproductive organs that produce sperm and the hormone testosterone.
Ovaries
Female reproductive organs that produce eggs and the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
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