SEM2 MTRM1 PERSPECTIVES

Sola Scriptura (Luther): The belief that the Bible alone is the ultimate authority for Christian faith and practice, rejecting other sources like church traditions

• “By scripture alone”

Sola Fides (Luther): The doctrine that faith alone, rather than good works, is the means by which a person is justified and saved by God

• “By faith alone” 

Imputation of Righteousness (Calvin): The belief that Christ’s righteousness is credited to believers by faith, making them right with God, even though they are not inherently righteous.

Medici (Machiavelli): Refers to the powerful Italian banking family that Machiavelli used as an example of political rule in his writings, particularly in "The Prince."

Virtù (Machiavelli): A concept in Machiavelli’s political theory referring to the qualities that a ruler needs to effectively shape their destiny, like strength, cunning, and pragmatism.

Fortuna (Machiavelli): A concept of luck or fortune, which Machiavelli believed could affect human affairs, but which a ruler must skillfully navigate or master to succeed.

Sovereign (Hobbes): The absolute ruler or authority in a state, created by a social contract to maintain peace and order, as discussed in Hobbes' work Leviathan.

General Will (Rousseau): The collective will of the people, which should guide the decisions of the state; it represents the common good, not individual desires.

Idols: Tribe, Cave, Theater, Marketplace (Bacon): These are types of biases or false notions that distort human understanding:

• Tribe refers to human nature’s tendencies.

• Cave refers to individual biases based on personal experiences.

• Theater refers to misleading philosophies or ideologies.

• Marketplace refers to how language can mislead.

Inductive (Bacon): A method of reasoning that moves from specific observations to general conclusions. Bacon emphasized this approach in scientific inquiry.

Deductive (Bacon): A method of reasoning that starts with general principles and moves to specific conclusions.

Epistemology: The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, scope, and limits of knowledge—how we know what we know.

Metaphysics: The branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of reality, including concepts like existence, time, space, and causality.

Hyperbolic Doubt (Descartes): Descartes’ method of doubting everything that can possibly be doubted to establish certain knowledge, often phrased as doubting the existence of the external world.

Indubitability (Descartes): The idea that certain knowledge must be so certain that it cannot be doubted, like the knowledge of one’s own existence.

Res Cogitans (Descartes): The "thinking thing"—Descartes’ term for the mind or soul, which is distinct from the body.

Res Extensa (Descartes): The "extended thing"—Descartes’ term for the physical body or matter, which exists in space and can be measured.

Cogito Ergo Sum (Descartes): "I think, therefore I am"—Descartes’ foundational statement that his ability to doubt or think proves his existence.

Dubito Ergo Sum (Descartes): "I doubt, therefore I am"—Another way of stating the same idea that doubting proves one’s existence.

Rationalist: A philosopher who believes that reason and logic are the primary sources of knowledge, rather than sensory experience.

Empiricist: A philosopher who believes that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience, rather than innate ideas or reasoning.

Idealist: A philosopher who believes that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual in nature, and that our perception shapes the world.

Deontology: An ethical theory that emphasizes duties, rules, and principles, suggesting that actions are morally right if they follow a set of rules, regardless of consequences.

Utilitarianism: An ethical theory that suggests the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people.

Categorical Imperative (Kant): Kant’s principle that one should act only according to maxims that could be consistently willed as a universal law (i.e., the rule should apply to everyone).

Hypothetical Imperative (Kant): A command that applies only if you have a specific goal in mind (e.g., "If you want to get healthy, exercise").

A Priori: Knowledge that is independent of experience; it is known through reason alone (e.g., mathematical truths).

• “Prior to experience” 

A Posteriori: Knowledge that comes from experience or empirical evidence (e.g., knowing that the sky is blue by seeing it).

• “After experience” 

Autonomy (Kant): The ability to make one’s own decisions and act in accordance with rational moral principles, free from external control.

Bourgeois (Marx): The social class that owns the means of production, such as factories, and controls economic power.

Proletariat (Marx): The working class who do not own the means of production and must sell their labor to survive.