iran study guide

Part 1: The Making of the Modern State 

1. What is unique about Iran’s geography and population?

• Geography:

  • Iran is located at a strategic crossroads connecting Central Asia, Asia Minor, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Caucasus Mountains.

  • Its position has historically made it vulnerable to invasions by empires like the Mongols and Arabs.

  • It is three times the size of France, with a rugged landscape where much of the territory (e.g., deserts and mountains) is inhospitable to agriculture.

  • Iran is the second-largest oil producer in the Middle East and fourth globally, with vast petroleum reserves shaping its economy.

  • The country is urbanized and partly industrialized, with significant development in cities like Tehran.

• Population:

  • 67% of Iran’s population is concentrated on 27% of its land, primarily in urban areas and fertile regions.

  • It is predominantly Persian (not Arab), distinguishing it ethnically from most Middle Eastern countries. Language- Farsi  

  • 89% of the population adheres to Shi’a Islam, a defining cultural and political feature.

2. Describe the Shi’ite/Sunni split by summarizing the major beliefs of each.

• Shi’ite (Shia):

  • Predominant in Iran (89% of the population).

  • Believe that only direct descendants of Muhammad, starting with Ali (his cousin and son-in-law), are legitimate successors to lead the Islamic faith.

  • Emphasize the role of Imams as infallible religious and political leaders, with a historical focus on the Twelve Imams.

• Sunni:

  • The majority branch of Islam worldwide (85-90% of Muslims).

  • Believe leadership should be elected from the Muslim community, not restricted to Muhammad’s bloodline; they accept the first four caliphs as rightful successors.

  • View the Quran as the literal word of God and rely on the Sunnah (traditions of Muhammad) for guidance, without the same emphasis on Imams.

3. Explain the influence of the rule of the Safavids and Qajars in Iran.

• Safavids (1501-1722):

  • Founded by Shah Ismail I with support from the Qizilbash (a militant Shi’a group), establishing Iran as a Shi’ite state, a defining moment in its religious identity.

  • Claimed descent from the Twelve Imams, legitimizing their rule through religious authority.

  • Forcibly converted the predominantly Sunni population to Shi’ism, creating a unified religious identity.

  • Ruled from Isfahan, showing tolerance toward "People of the Book" (Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians) but not Sunnis. Ancient Iranian kings gained legitimacy through

  • Economic decline followed disruptions to the Silk Road, and the dynasty fell after an Afghan invasion in 1722.

• Qajars (1794-1925):

  • A Turkish tribe that seized power after a civil war, maintaining Shi’ism but not claiming descent from the Imams, weakening their religious legitimacy.

  • Clerical leaders gained influence as the state-religion divide widened, setting the stage for later theocratic power.

  • Lost territory to Russian expansion (e.g., Caucasus regions) and sold oil drilling rights to Britain, increasing foreign influence.

  • Heavy borrowing from European banks led to economic dependency.

  • The Constitutional Revolution (1905-1909), driven by merchants and intellectuals, forced the adoption of a constitution, limiting monarchical power.

  • World War I exacerbated chaos, with Iran split into Russian, British, and neutral zones.

4. Identify the democratic elements of the Constitution of 1906. Identify the theocratic element of the Constitution of 1906.

• Democratic Elements:

  • Separation of Powers: Divided authority among the executive (Shah), legislature (Majles), and judiciary.

  • Elected Legislature (Majles): Laws were made by a parliament elected by citizens, though initially limited to elites.

  • Bill of Rights: Guaranteed freedoms like speech and assembly, reflecting liberal influences.

  • Popular Sovereignty: The people’s will was recognized as a source of authority, a shift from absolute monarchy.

• Theocratic Element:

  • Guardian Council of Clerics: A body of Shi’a clerics was given veto power over legislation to ensure compliance with Islamic law, embedding religious oversight in the state.

5. Describe the rule of Reza Shah and Muhammad Reza Shah. Who supported the Shah? Who did not?

• Reza Shah (1921-1941):

  • A military officer who seized power in a 1921 coup, ending Qajar rule.

  • Ruled authoritatively, reducing the Majles’ influence and centralizing power.

  • Proclaimed himself "Shah-in-Shah" (King of Kings) in 1925, renaming Persia to Iran to emphasize national identity.

  • Allied with Nazi Germany, modernized the economy (railroads, factories), and secularized politics by curbing clerical power.

  • Forced to abdicate in 1941 by Allied forces due to his pro-German stance during WWII.

• Muhammad Reza Shah (1941-1979):

  • Installed by Allied forces (Britain and USSR) after his father’s abdication.

  • Ruled as an authoritarian monarch, creating SAVAK (secret police) to suppress dissent.

  • Faced opposition from the National Front, led by Muhammad Mosaddeq, who nationalized oil in 1951, prompting a 1953 U.S.- and UK-backed coup to restore the Shah.

  • Launched the White Revolution (1963-1979), promoting land reform, women’s rights, and industrialization, but alienating traditionalists.

  • Grew distant from the populace, relying on Western support and ignoring civil liberties.

• Support:

  • U.S. and Britain (for strategic and oil interests), urban elites benefiting from modernization.

• Opposition:

  • Clergy (opposed secularization), middle class and intellectuals (National Front), nationalists (resented foreign influence), and communists (Tudeh Party) challenge the Pahlavi Dynasty. 

6. Identify policies by the Shah that led to increased secularization in Iran.

• Land Redistribution: Transferred clerical estates to peasants under the White Revolution, weakening religious institutions.

• Women’s Rights: Granted suffrage and expanded education and employment opportunities, challenging traditional gender roles.

• Reduced Clerical Influence: Curtailed the role of clerics in government, education, and law, promoting a secular state.

7. Describe the causes of the 1979 Iranian Revolution (both underlying and immediate).

• Underlying Causes:

  • Discontent with the Shah’s authoritarian rule, marked by censorship and SAVAK repression.

  • Economic inequality and corruption, with oil wealth concentrated among elites.

  • Secularization and Westernization (e.g., White Revolution) alienated traditionalists and clergy.

  • Nationalism fueled resentment of foreign interference (e.g., 1953 coup).

• Immediate Causes:

  • Economic downturn in the late 1970s, with inflation and unemployment sparking unrest.

  • The 1977 death of Khomeini’s son (allegedly by SAVAK) galvanized opposition.

  • Mass protests and strikes in 1978-1979, culminating in the Shah’s exile in January 1979.

8. What role did Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini play in the revolution?

• Khomeini was the charismatic leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, unifying diverse opposition groups (clergy, intellectuals, workers).

• Exiled to Paris in 1964 after opposing the Shah, he used cassette tapes and writings to inspire revolutionaries.

• Returned to Iran in February 1979 after the Shah’s departure, establishing the Islamic Republic and becoming its first Supreme Leader.

9. Describe how the revolution compares to revolutions in Russia and China.

• Similarities:

  • All overthrew authoritarian regimes (Tsar in Russia, Qing/Monarchy in China, Shah in Iran).

  • Driven by ideological shifts: communism (Russia, China) vs. Islamism (Iran).

  • Relied on mass mobilization of peasants, workers, and intellectuals.

• Differences:

  • Iran’s revolution was theocratic, aiming for an Islamic state, while Russia and China pursued secular, communist systems.

  • Iran’s was less violent, lacking the prolonged civil wars of Russia (1917-1923) or China (1927-1949).

  • Iran retained a mixed economy, unlike the collectivization in Russia and China.

10. Explain the consequences of the 1979 Iranian Revolution.

• Established the Islamic Republic via a March 1979 referendum, abolishing the monarchy.

• Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran adopted a new constitution that institutionalized velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist), a key concept in its political system developed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. This Persian term, often referred to in the context of Iran’s theocratic regime, grants the Supreme Leader—a senior Shi’a cleric—supreme authority over both political and religious affairs, embodying the fusion of governance and Islamic theology that defines the Islamic Republic of Iran. 

• Promoted Islamic fundamentalism: literal interpretation of Islamic texts, social conservatism (e.g., mandatory hijab), and political traditionalism.

• Shifted foreign policy to anti-Westernism, notably with the U.S. Embassy hostage crisis (1979-1981).

11. Describe the regime before and after the revolution.

• Before:

  • A monarchy under Muhammad Reza Shah with low legitimacy due to authoritarianism, secularization, and reliance on Western powers.

  • Centralized power, censored opposition, and prioritized modernization over traditional values.

• After:

  • An Islamic Republic led by Ayatollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader, blending theocracy and limited democracy.

  • Based on a 1979 constitution with velayat-e faqih, giving clerics ultimate authority to interpret Shari’a law and oversee governance.

12. How does the outcome of the revolution compare to revolutions in Russia, China, and Mexico?

• Russia (1917): Established a secular communist state with a single-party system; Iran created a theocratic republic with clerical rule.

• China (1949): Formed a communist regime with collectivized economy; Iran maintained a mixed economy under religious oversight.

• Mexico (1910-1920): Resulted in a secular, one-party state (PRI dominance); Iran’s outcome was a unique theocratic system with dual legitimacy (elections and clerics).

13. Explain how the Ayatollah was able to institutionalize the Islamic concept of jurist guardianship.

• Khomeini staged a referendum in March 1979, where 98% of voters approved replacing the monarchy with an Islamic Republic.

• He established the Assembly of Religious Experts, a clerical body that drafted the 1979 Constitution.

• The constitution enshrined velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist), granting the Supreme Leader— a senior Shi’a cleric—ultimate authority over political, military, and religious affairs.

14. Describe two distinct sources of political legitimacy established by the 1979 Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran and how having both those sources of legitimacy simultaneously has led to tensions in Iran in the last fifteen years.

• Sources of Legitimacy:

  • Democratic: Free elections for the president, Majles (parliament), and local councils, reflecting popular sovereignty.

  • Theocratic: The Supreme Leader and Guardian Council derive legitimacy from protecting Islamic values and Shari’a law.

• Tensions (Last 15 Years):

  • The Guardian Council’s veto power and candidate vetting (e.g., barring reformists in 2009 and 2021 elections) undermine democratic participation, sparking protests like the 2009 Green Movement.

  • Reformists (e.g., Khatami supporters) push for greater democracy, clashing with conservatives who prioritize theocratic control, evident in crackdowns on dissent (e.g., 2019 fuel price protests).

15. Identify similarities in the goals of the Cultural Revolution in China and the Cultural Revolution in Iran.

• Both aimed to purge Western influences: China targeted capitalist and imperialist culture, while Iran (1980-1983) sought to eliminate secularism and Western education.

• Both enforced ideological purity: Mao’s communism in China vs. Khomeini’s Islamism in Iran, closing universities and purging intellectuals to align society with state ideology.

16. Identify democratic reforms made by President Mohammad Khatami.

• Rule of Law: Strengthened legal protections and judicial independence to curb arbitrary governance.

• Civil Society: Encouraged NGOs and grassroots organizations to foster public participation.

• Press Freedom: Relaxed censorship, allowing a boom in independent newspapers (later curtailed by hardliners).

• Cultural Openness: Promoted "Dialogue Among Civilizations" to ease tensions with the West.

17. Explain how Iran has become less democratic under President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.

• Censorship: Increased jailing of internet users and bloggers, tightening media control.

• Morality Police: Expanded enforcement of dress codes and social behavior, restricting personal freedoms.

• Shari’a Law: Harsher application of Islamic penalties, reducing secular legal influence.

• Foreign Policy: Aggressive rhetoric (e.g., calling for Israel’s destruction) and nuclear expansion alienated reformists and justified crackdowns.

• Election Fallout: The disputed 2009 election led to the Green Movement’s suppression by the Revolutionary Guard, signaling a democratic backslide.

Part 2: Government and Policy Making

1. Identify the political system in Iran. Unitary/Federal? Authoritarian?

• Unitary: Iran operates as a unitary system, with power centralized in the national government and no significant regional autonomy.

• Authoritarian: Despite elections, Iran is an authoritarian theocracy, as unelected clerical bodies, particularly the Supreme Leader, hold ultimate authority.

2. What is the basij?

• The basij is a volunteer militia established in 1979 by Ayatollah Khomeini. It enforces moral codes, suppresses dissent, and supports the regime during crises, such as protests. It operates under the Revolutionary Guard.

3. What is qanun?

• Qanun refers to secular laws passed by Iran’s parliament, the Majles. These laws must be reviewed by the Guardian Council to ensure compatibility with Islamic principles.

4. Define Theocracy. Describe theocratic and democratic elements of Iran.

• Theocracy Definition: A government where religious leaders hold ultimate power, and laws are rooted in religious doctrine.

• Theocratic Elements:

  • Supreme Leader: A senior Shi’a cleric with authority over all government branches, the military, and religious matters.

  • Guardian Council: Clerics vet candidates and laws for Islamic compliance.

  • Assembly of Experts: Clerics select and oversee the Supreme Leader.

  • Shari’a Law: Islamic law shapes legal codes.

• Democratic Elements:

  • Elections: Citizens vote for the president and Majles.

  • Legislation: The Majles passes laws, though subject to clerical approval.

  • Presidency: The elected president manages policy, but answers to the Supreme Leader.

5. Identify the Dual Executive in Iran.

• Head of State: Supreme Leader (Ali Khamenei), with ultimate authority.

• Head of Government: President (Masoud Pezeshkian), handling daily governance.

• Relationship: The Supreme Leader overrides the president on major decisions.

• Power Holder: The Supreme Leader has greater power, controlling key institutions.

6. How does the executive compare to the other AP6 countries?

• Iran’s executive is unique due to the Supreme Leader’s theocratic role, unlike the secular parliamentary (UK), presidential (Nigeria), or semi-presidential (Russia) systems in the AP6.

7. Explain the significance of the Supreme Leader.

• Selection: Chosen by the Assembly of Experts (clerics).

• Qualifications: Must be a senior Shi’a cleric (initially a marja, relaxed post-Khomeini).

• Term: Lifetime.

• Powers: Commands the military, judiciary, media, and can veto laws or dismiss the president.

• Checks: The Assembly of Experts can theoretically remove him, but this is untested.

8. Explain the role of the President.

• Selection: Elected by citizens.

• Term: Four years, maximum two terms.

• Powers: Oversees the economy, signs treaties, appoints ministers (Majles-approved).

• Checks: Supreme Leader can dismiss him; Guardian Council vets candidates.

9. Describe the role of the bureaucracy in Iran.

• Iran’s bureaucracy is large, centralized, and implements presidential policies. Clerical influence and factionalism reduce its independence.

10. Which factors contribute to the lack of independent institutions in Iran?

• Supreme Leader and Guardian Council oversight.

• Revolutionary Guard and basij intimidation.

• Media censorship and suppression of opposition.

  • The Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) was created to serve as the state-controlled media organization in Iran, established after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Its primary purpose is to promote the ideology of the Islamic Republic, disseminate government-approved narratives, and reinforce Islamic values and revolutionary principles as defined by the regime. Under the direct oversight of the Supreme Leader, IRIB manages television, radio, and digital content, ensuring alignment with the theocratic system and acting as a tool for propaganda, cultural preservation, and control of public discourse.

11. Describe the role of religious endowments in Iran. How much accountability do they have?

• Religious endowments (bonyads) manage vast economic assets, provide social services, and bolster the regime. They face little accountability, being tax-exempt and tied to clerical elites.

12. Identify Iran’s legislature as unicameral or bicameral.

• Unicameral: The Majles is the only legislative chamber.

13. How are members of the legislature chosen?

• Majles members are elected by citizens every four years, with no term limits.

14. What powers does the legislature have?

• The Majles passes laws (qanun), approves budgets, and can impeach ministers.

15. Are there any checks on its power?

• Yes, the Guardian Council can veto laws, and the Supreme Leader can shape its priorities.

16. What is the relationship between the Majles and the Guardian Council?

• The Majles drafts laws, but the Guardian Council must approve them for Islamic compliance, often vetoing legislation and asserting dominance.

17. Describe the relationship between the government and the military.

• Control: The Supreme Leader oversees the military and Revolutionary Guard.

• Military Role: Defends the state.

• Revolutionary Guard Role: Protects the regime, enforces ideology, and controls economic enterprises.

• Power Holder: The Supreme Leader.

18. Describe the role of the judiciary, including the status of judicial review.

• The judiciary applies Shari’a and secular laws, but lacks independence as the Supreme Leader appoints its head. Judicial review, handled by the Guardian Council, ensures laws align with Islam.

19. What makes the judiciary in Iran unique compared to the AP6 countries?

• Iran’s judiciary is theocratic, with clerics dominating legal oversight, unlike the secular systems in the UK, Russia, or China.

20. What relationship does it have to other institutions in Iran?

• The judiciary is subordinate to the Supreme Leader and works closely with the Guardian Council to uphold clerical authority.

       21. Expediency Council: Composed largely of clerics and appointed by the Supreme Leader, it resolves disputes   between the Guardian Council and Majles, ensuring alignment with Islamic principles.

Assembly of Religious Experts: A body of clerics elected by the public (from a vetted list) to select and oversee the Supreme Leader, reinforcing the religious hierarchy.

Part 3:  Citizens, Society, and the State:

1. Explain what the 2009 Green Movement was.

• The 2009 Green Movement was a protest wave after the contested presidential election, where reformist Mir Hossein Mousavi claimed fraud against Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. It demanded transparency and was met with violent suppression.

2. Identify ethnic groups in Iran, including majority/minority groups.

• Majority: Persians (61%).

• Minorities: Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), Arabs (2%), Baloch (2%), others.

3. How has Iran addressed minority groups?

• Iran emphasizes Persian culture and Shi’ism, often suppressing minorities like Kurds and Baloch, while Azeris are better integrated due to shared faith.

4. Identify social cleavages in Iran. Classify them as coinciding or cross-cutting.

• Religion: Shi’a vs. Sunni (coinciding with ethnicity, e.g., Sunni Kurds).

  • Coinciding cleavages occur when different social divisions (such as ethnicity, religion, language, class, or region) align with and reinforce each other. Creates deep societal divisions with little crossover between groups. And often leads to greater political polarization and potential for conflict

• Ideology: Conservatives vs. reformists (cross-cutting across classes).

  • Cross-cutting cleavages occur when social divisions intersect and overlap in ways that create connections between different groups. This means that people who are divided on one dimension might share common interests on another dimension. 

• Ethnicity: Persians vs. minorities (coinciding with region/language).

5. Which minority religious groups are officially recognized by the state? Which are not?

• Recognized: Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians (with restricted rights).

• Not Recognized: Baha’is (persecuted), Sunnis (discriminated against).

6. Describe the role of women in Iran.

• Gains: High education rates and professional roles (e.g., medicine).

• Restrictions: Mandatory hijab, limited legal rights, and exclusion from top political positions.

7. Identify forms of political participation in Iran.

• Voting: For president, Majles, and local councils.

• Parties: Informal factions (reformists, conservatives).

  • Iranian political parties tend to be focused on personalities rather than broad-based ideological platforms, religion, or culture alone. In Iran, formal political parties are weak and operate more as loose factions or alliances, often centered around prominent figures such as reformist leaders (e.g., Mohammad Khatami) or conservative clerics (e.g., Ali Khamenei). 

• Protests: Frequent among students/reformists, often repressed.

• NGOs: Limited by state control, some focus on women’s rights.

8. What types of elections are held at the local and national level?

• National: Presidential and Majles elections.

• Local: Municipal council elections.

9. What type of party system does Iran currently have? How has that changed?

• Iran has a factional system (reformists vs. conservatives), evolving from a brief multi-party phase post-revolution to clerical control.

10. How have political opposition groups operated?

• Opposition (e.g., reformists, Green Movement) faces candidate bans and repression but persists within legal limits.

11. Which groups are most likely to form protests? What events have led to protests? How has the state responded?

• Groups: Students, women, reformists.

• Events: 2009 election fraud, 2019 fuel price hikes.

• Response: Security crackdowns, arrests, media censorship.

12. Describe the role of the media/press/censorship in Iran.

• Historically state-dominated, with brief openness (1997-2005). Today, strict censorship, especially online, and journalists face imprisonment.

13. Describe the factors that shape political culture in Iran.

• Shi’a Islam, Persian nationalism, historical foreign interference, and clerical rule foster a culture valuing religious legitimacy and defiance of external powers.

One of the most often and persistent criticisms of Iran by the international community has beenI ran’s harsh anti-LGBT policies (e.g., executions). 

Part 4: Public Policy

1. U.S.-Iran Nuclear Deal 2015 (JCPOA)

• Iran reduced uranium stockpiles by 98%, capped enrichment at 3.67%, and dismantled centrifuges, extending its nuclear breakout time to over a year. Verified by the IAEA, it traded compliance for sanctions relief.

2. Describe major economic policies.

• Historically: Shah-era industrialization, post-revolution nationalization.

• Currently: Diversification attempts (tech, agriculture), hampered by sanctions and corruption.

3. Define a rentier state. Describe a related problem.

• Rentier State: Relies on external rents (e.g., oil) rather than taxes.

• Problem: Oil dependence causes economic instability and underdevelopment of other sectors.

4. Describe current major public policy issues and policymaking factions.

• Issues: Nuclear program, inequality, human rights, sanctions.

• Factions: Conservatives prioritize stability; reformists push liberalization.

5. What impact do these issues have on Iran’s development?

• Sanctions limit economic growth, and repression stalls political reform, sustaining clerical rule but sparking unrest.

6. Identify one population growth issue and policy.

• Issue: Post-revolution population boom.

• Policy: 1990s family planning cut birth rates.

• Consequence: Aging population pressures social services.

7. Describe Iran’s role in supranational organizations.

• UN: Active, often clashing with the West.

• WTO: Excluded due to sanctions.

• OPEC: Uses oil to influence markets and resist U.S. pressure.

8. How does Iran compare to other AP6 countries?

• GDP: Below UK/Russia, above Nigeria.

• Gini Index: 0.38, akin to Mexico.

• Freedom House: "Not Free," like China/Russia.

• CPI: High corruption, similar to Nigeria/Russia.

FRQ

1. Identify a function of a legislature that is common to both Parliament in Great Britain and the Majles in Iran.

A function of a legislature that is common to both Parliament in Great Britain and the Majles in Iran is enacting laws. Each legislature has the power to debate and amend legislation. Elected by the people. others can stop the laws they try to enact 

2. Explain how a function of a legislature can strengthen democratic practices in Great Britain.

A function of a legislature in Great Britain that can strengthen democratic practices is the debating of legislation. The Parliament (House of Lords and House of Commons) work together to make informed decisions on passing legislation. This allows them to do what is best for the people. Another aspect of debate in Parliament are democratic values of free speech and pluralism. This sets a precedent for society as a whole with active participation and engagement. 

3. Describe two ways the Majles is controlled in Iran.

One way the Majles is controlled in Iran is through the oversight of the Guardian Council. Candidates for the Majles have to submit their names to a subcommittee of the Guardian Council, who then determine who can run. The Majles are also only able to enact and change laws with the approval of the Guardian Council. Another way the Majles is controlled in Iran is through the direct election of the members. There are specific qualifications to become a member of the Majles and the process is very thorough. 

4. Explain why authoritarian regimes in general maintain legislatures. 

Authoritarian regimes in general maintain legislatures because they want to illusion of some say from the people. Most people do not want to have no say in their government. adds more legitimacy with others countries as well