Evolution

Adaptations: Adaptations are inherited characteristics that increase an organism's chance of survival and reproduction in a specific environment.

Allele Frequency: Allele frequency refers to how common an allele is in a population. It is determined by dividing the number of times an allele occurs in a population by the total number of copies of all alleles for that gene in the same population.

Differential Reproductive Success: Differential reproductive success is when certain individuals in a population produce more offspring than others due to their advantageous traits or behaviors.

Evolution of Species: The evolution of species refers to changes in heritable traits within populations over successive generations, leading eventually to new species' formation from common ancestors.

Fitness Benefits: Fitness benefits refer to the advantages gained from certain traits or behaviors that increase an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction.

Heritable Variations: Heritable variations refer to differences in characteristics among individuals within a population that can be passed down from parents to offspring through genes.

Mutation: A mutation is any change that occurs in the DNA sequence. It can lead to variations within species and potentially new species altogether.

Natural Selection: Natural selection is a process in nature where organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to their environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to pass on these favorable genetic traits to their offspring.

Phenotype: Phenotype refers to an individual's observable physical properties such as appearance, development and behavior—the outcomes influenced by its genotype interacting with the environment.

Phenotypic Variation: Phenotypic variation refers to the differences in physical traits among individuals of the same species due to genetic and environmental factors.

Selective Pressure: Selective pressure is an environmental factor that causes certain traits to be more or less advantageous, leading to changes in the frequency of those traits over generations.

Artificial Selection: Artificial selection is a process where humans intentionally breed certain organisms with desirable traits to produce offspring with the same traits.

Convergent Evolution: Convergent evolution is when different species independently evolve similar traits as they adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.

Environmental Pressure: Environmental pressure refers to the influence exerted by the environment on organisms, leading to changes in their behavior, distribution, or physiology. It often drives natural selection and evolution.

Genetic Basis of Traits: The genetic basis of traits refers to how genes determine physical characteristics or behaviors of an organism.

Inheritance: Inheritance refers to how genetic material is passed on from parents to offspring during reproduction.

Mechanisms of Evolution: Mechanisms of evolution are processes that lead to changes in genetic composition within populations over time, leading to diversity and complexity among species. These mechanisms include mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection, and sexual selection.

Natural Selection: Natural selection is a process in nature where organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to their environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to pass on these favorable genetic traits to their offspring.

Phenotypic Variation: Phenotypic variation refers to the differences in physical traits among individuals of the same species due to genetic and environmental factors.

Selective Breeding: Selective breeding is a process used by humans to develop new organisms with desirable characteristics. Breeders select two parents that have beneficial phenotypic traits to reproduce, yielding offspring with those desired traits.

Wings: Wings are appendages or structures that allow an organism to fly. They are typically found on birds, insects, and bats.

Adaptation to Different Environments: This refers to how organisms change over time in response to their environment. These changes enhance their ability to survive and reproduce.

Alleles: Alleles are different versions or variations of a gene that can occur at a specific locus on a chromosome.

Beneficial Mutations: Beneficial mutations are changes in an organism's genetic material that improve its chances of survival and reproduction.

Bottleneck Effect: The bottleneck effect is another form of genetic drift where an event drastically reduces the size of a population and consequently its genetic variation.

Competition for Resources: This is a biological concept where organisms vie for the same limited resources in an environment, such as food, water, light, space or mates.

Deleterious Mutations: Deleterious mutations are harmful changes in an organism's genetic material that decrease its chances of survival and reproduction.

Founder Effect: The founder effect is a type of genetic drift that occurs when a small group of individuals becomes isolated from the larger population, leading to changes in the gene pool.

Gene Flow: Gene flow is the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations are considered to have equivalent allele frequencies and therefore effectively be a single population.

Genetic Drift: Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes random changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population over time.

Mutations: Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome. They can occur naturally or as a result of exposure to certain chemicals or radiation.

Natural Disaster: A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth. These include floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis and other geologic processes.

Speciation: Speciation is an evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.

Allele Frequencies: Allele frequency refers to how common an allele is in a population. It is determined by counting how many times that allele appears within the population then dividing by total number of alleles for that gene.

Artificial Selection: Artificial selection is a process where humans intentionally breed certain organisms with desirable traits to produce offspring with the same traits.

Gene Flow: Gene flow is the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations are considered to have equivalent allele frequencies and therefore effectively be a single population.

Gene Pool: A gene pool refers to the total collection of different genes within an interbreeding population.

Genetic Drift: Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes random changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population over time.

Genotypic Ratios: Genotypic ratios refer to the predicted ratio of different genotypes produced by specific types of mating, often represented in a Punnett square.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a principle stating that the genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing factors.

Heterozygous Genotype: A heterozygous genotype consists of two different alleles for a particular gene - one dominant and one recessive.

Homozygous Dominant Genotype: A homozygous dominant genotype consists of two dominant alleles for a particular gene. The presence of at least one dominant allele results in the expression of the dominant trait.

Homozygous Recessive Genotype: A homozygous recessive genotype occurs when an individual has two copies of the same recessive allele for a specific trait.

Infinite Population Size: In population genetics, an infinite population size refers to a hypothetical scenario where the number of individuals in a population is so large that genetic drift has no effect on the frequency of alleles.

Migration: In biology terms, migration refers to the movement and exchange of genes from one population to another, which can affect the genetic diversity of the populations.

Mutation: A mutation is any change that occurs in the DNA sequence. It can lead to variations within species and potentially new species altogether.

Natural Selection: Natural selection is a process in nature where organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to their environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to pass on these favorable genetic traits to their offspring.

Phenotypic Ratios: Phenotypic ratios refer to the ratio of different physical traits that offspring show in a particular generation, as a result of genetic crosses.

Random Mating: Random mating refers to a pattern where individuals choose mates irrespective of their genotypes or phenotypes. It ensures equal opportunity for all genes to be passed on to next generations.

Amino Acids: Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. They are the building blocks of life and are vital for a number of functions in the body.

Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores chemical processes within and related to living organisms.

Biogeography: Biogeography is the study of how species are distributed geographically across Earth, both in present times and throughout history. It provides insight into species' evolution, extinction, and migration patterns.

Body Hair: Body hair is hair that grows on various parts of our bodies besides our head. Its primary functions include providing warmth and enhancing touch sensation but much like other vestigial traits, body hair isn't as important to humans today as it was to our ancestors.

Comparative Anatomy: Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. It provides evidence for evolution, as similar structures may indicate common ancestry.

DNA Replication: DNA replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

DNA Sequences: A DNA sequence is the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. It represents the genetic information in genes that is used to produce proteins.

Fossil Evidence: Fossil evidence refers to the remains or traces of organisms from the past, preserved in geological formations. This evidence provides a historical record of life on Earth and is used to support theories about evolution.

Homologous Structures: Homologous structures are parts of different organisms that have similar structure but not necessarily the same function, indicating a common ancestry.

Human Appendix: The human appendix is a small, tube-shaped sac attached to the lower end of the large intestine. It's considered a vestigial organ, meaning it has lost most of its original function through evolution.

Mathematical Modeling: Mathematical modeling is the process of using mathematical structures and concepts to represent real-world situations or phenomena.

Molecular Biology: Molecular biology studies the structure and function of molecules essential for life, including DNA, RNA, and proteins.

Paleomagnetism: Paleomagnetism is the study of the record of the Earth's magnetic field in rocks, sediment, or archeological materials.

Physiology: Physiology is the branch of biology that studies the functions and mechanisms at work in living organisms, whether they are plants, animals, or humans.

Protein Sequences: A protein sequence is the order in which amino acids are arranged in a protein. This sequence determines the structure and function of the protein.

Radiometric Dating: Radiometric dating is a technique used by scientists to date rocks and other materials by comparing the abundance of parent isotopes with daughter isotopes. This method relies on our knowledge about radioactive decay rates.

Stratigraphy: Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in geology for dating and understanding geological events.

Tailbone: The tailbone, or coccyx, is a small, triangular bone at the base of the spinal column in humans and certain other primates. It's a vestigial structure, meaning it's a remnant of an organ or structure that had a function in our evolutionary past.

Tephrochronology: Tephrochronology is a geochronological technique that uses discrete layers of tephra—volcanic ash from specific volcanic eruptions—to create a chronological framework in which paleoenvironmental or archaeological records can be placed.

Vestigial Structures: Vestigial structures are anatomical features or behaviors that no longer seem to have a purpose in the current form of an organism. These often functioned in a way that was important for the organism's ancestors.

Wings on Flightless Birds: Wings on flightless birds are examples of vestigial structures. They're remnants from when their ancestors could fly but now serve little to no purpose for flight.

Wisdom Teeth: Wisdom teeth are the third and final set of molars that most people get in their late teens or early twenties. They're also considered vestigial organs because they're not necessary for chewing modern diets

Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and some algae that conduct photosynthesis, where they absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas to produce food for the plant.

Circular Chromosomes: Circular chromosomes are a type of chromosome, typically found in prokaryotes like bacteria, where the DNA molecule is circular or ring-shaped rather than linear.

Endosymbiosis: Endosymbiosis is a mutually beneficial relationship where one organism lives inside another. This theory explains how complex cells (eukaryotes) evolved from simple cells (prokaryotes).

Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes.

Evolutionary Theories: Evolutionary theories are scientific explanations that describe how species change over time and develop into new species. These theories include concepts like natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation.

Exons: Exons are the sections of DNA that are transcribed into mRNA and then translated into proteins. They contain the actual genetic information coding for protein synthesis.

Genetic Information: Genetic information refers to instructions in an organism's DNA that guide growth, development, functioning and reproduction. It is encoded as DNA sequences within genes.

Introns: Introns are non-coding sections of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are spliced out before the RNA molecule is translated into protein.

Linear Chromosomes: Linear chromosomes are long strands of DNA that exist within eukaryotic cell nuclei. Each chromosome carries genetic information encoded in its DNA sequence.

Membrane-bound Organelles: These are specialized structures within the cell that perform specific tasks and are surrounded by protective membranes.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are organelles within eukaryotic cells that produce most of the cell’s supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.

Nucleus: The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains most of the cell's genetic material organized as DNA molecules along with proteins forming chromosomes.

Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound organelles including a nucleus.

Protein Variants: Protein variants refer to different forms of a protein that can be produced from the same gene as a result of alternative splicing or post-translational modifications.

Splicing: Splicing is the process where introns (non-coding regions) are removed from pre-mRNA and exons (coding regions) are joined together to form mature mRNA ready for translation.

Adaptations: Adaptations are inherited characteristics that increase an organism's chance of survival and reproduction in a specific environment.

Antibiotics: Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections. They work by killing bacteria or preventing them from reproducing and spreading.

Coronavirus Strain: A coronavirus strain refers to a variant or subtype of the larger coronavirus family. These strains differ slightly in their genetic makeup but belong to the same viral species.

COVID-19 Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic refers to the global outbreak of a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that began in late 2019. It is characterized by rapid human-to-human transmission and can cause severe respiratory illness.

Emergent Diseases: Emergent diseases are new infections resulting from changes or evolution of existing organisms; known infections spreading to new geographic areas or populations; previously unrecognized infections appearing in areas undergoing ecological transformation; old infections reemerging due to antimicrobial resistance in known agents or breakdowns in public health measures.

Extinct Organisms: Extinct organisms are species that no longer exist anywhere on Earth.

Fossil Record: The fossil record refers to all fossils discovered and the information derived from them about past life forms on Earth over millions of years.

Fossils: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past.

Genetic Drift: Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes random changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population over time.

Genetic Variation: Genetic variation refers to differences in the genetic makeup among individuals within a population or species due to mutation, gene flow, sexual reproduction etc., which is essential for evolution by natural selection.

Genomic Changes: Genomic changes refer to alterations in the structure or number of genes in an organism's genome. These changes can occur due to mutations, gene duplication, or chromosomal rearrangements.

Geologic Periods: Geologic periods are one subdivision of geologic time enabling cross-referencing rocks and geologic events from place to place. These periods form elements of a hierarchy e.g., eons, eras, periods, epochs and ages.

Mutation: A mutation is any change that occurs in the DNA sequence. It can lead to variations within species and potentially new species altogether.

Natural Selection: Natural selection is a process in nature where organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to their environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to pass on these favorable genetic traits to their offspring.

Pathogens: Pathogens are microorganisms - such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi - that cause disease in their host.

Populations: In biology, a population is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area.

Recombination: Recombination refers to the process where genetic material is mixed during sexual reproduction, creating new combinations of genes.

Reproduction: Reproduction is the biological process by which new individuals of the same species are produced, either by a single parent (asexual reproduction) or two parents (sexual reproduction).

Resistance to Antibiotics, Pesticides, Herbicides, Chemotherapy Drugs: This refers to the ability of certain organisms (like bacteria or pests) to survive and multiply despite the use of substances designed to kill them or inhibit their growth.

Resistant Traits: These are genetic characteristics that allow an organism to withstand conditions or substances that would typically harm or kill it.

Shared Common Ancestor: A shared common ancestor refers to an ancestral species from which two or more descendant species evolved.

Species Evolution: Species evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over generations to become more complex or adapted to their environment.

Survival: Survival in biology refers to the ability of an organism or species to live and thrive in its environment, overcoming challenges such as predation, disease, and changes in climate.

Traits: Traits are distinguishing qualities or characteristics that are inherited, such as eye color, leaf shape, or tail length.

Viruses and Bacteria: Viruses are tiny infectious agents that can only replicate inside the cells of living hosts. Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms which can live independently in various environments including extreme temperatures and pressures, radioactive waste, deep earth crust etc.

Cladograms: A cladogram is a diagram used in cladistics which shows relations among organisms based on shared derived characteristics that can be traced back to a group's most recent common ancestor.

Common Ancestor: A common ancestor refers to an ancestral organism or gene pool shared by two or more descendant species.

Derived Traits: Derived traits are newly evolved features that did not appear in the ancestors of a lineage.

DNA Sequence Similarities: DNA sequence similarities refer to the degree of identity in the sequence of nucleotides between different species. It is used as a measure of genetic relatedness and evolutionary relationships.

Ecological Isolation: Ecological isolation occurs when species do not mate because their habitats are different (even though those habitats may be close together).

Evolutionary Biology: Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species over time, as well as their change over time.

Evolutionary Relationships: Evolutionary relationships refer to how closely related different species are in terms of their evolution. This is often determined by comparing physical and genetic characteristics.

Fossils: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past.

Geographical Isolation: Geographical isolation is a term that refers to a group of animals, plants, or other organisms that are separated from exchanging genetic material with others of the same species. This can be due to physical barriers such as mountains, rivers, or vast distances.

Lineages: Lineages are sequences of species, each one giving rise to the next, that represent a line of evolutionary descent.

Molecular Clock: A molecular clock uses mutation rates in DNA sequences to estimate when two types of organisms diverged in evolution.

Morphological Similarities: Morphological similarities refer to physical traits that different organisms share due to either common ancestry (homology) or convergent evolution (analogy).

Nodes: In phylogenetics, nodes are points on a tree where a lineage splits into two or more separate lineages. They represent the most recent common ancestor of the lineages that branch from them.

Out-group: In phylogenetics, an out-group is a species or group of species that is closely related to but not part of the group being studied. It serves as a reference point for determining evolutionary relationships within the group under study.

Phylogenetic Trees: A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents the evolutionary relationships among various species or other entities that are believed to have a common ancestor.

Protein Sequence Similarities: Protein sequence similarities refer to the degree of identity in the sequence of amino acids that make up proteins between different species. This can also indicate genetic relatedness and evolutionary relationships.

Reproductive Isolation: Reproductive isolation occurs when different species are unable to interbreed and produce viable offspring due to physical, behavioral, or genetic barriers.

Shared Characteristics: Shared characteristics are traits that two or more species have in common, often due to a shared ancestor.

Speciation: Speciation is an evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.

Timeline of Evolution: The timeline of evolution refers to the chronological sequence of events since life began on Earth, including when different groups of organisms evolved.

Traits: Traits are distinguishing qualities or characteristics that are inherited, such as eye color, leaf shape, or tail length

Adaptive Radiation: Adaptive radiation is an evolutionary process where organisms rapidly diversify into multiple new forms especially when environmental conditions change creating new opportunities (niches).

Allopatric Speciation: Allopatric speciation is a mode of speciation that occurs when biological populations become geographically isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with genetic interchange.

Biological Species Concept: The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a way of defining species as groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

Disruptive Selection: Disruptive selection is a type of natural selection that simultaneously favors individuals at both extremes of the distribution.

Divergent Evolution: Divergent evolution refers to the process whereby groups from the same common ancestor evolve and accumulate differences, resulting in the formation of new species.

Donkey: A donkey is a domesticated hoofed mammal belonging to the horse family and used as a work animal or for riding.

Evolution: Evolution is the process by which species change over time through variations in their genetic material. These changes may lead to new species and greater biodiversity.

Genetic Drift: Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes random changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population over time.

Gradualism: Gradualism is a theory in biology that suggests evolution occurs slowly and steadily over a long period of time, with small genetic changes accumulating to bring about large changes.

Habitat Isolation: Habitat isolation is a type of prezygotic barrier where two closely related species do not mate because they inhabit different environments within the same geographic area.

Horse: A horse is a large domesticated mammal of the family Equidae and the genus Equus. It's known for its speed, strength, and ability to be trained for various tasks.

Interbreed: Interbreeding refers to when members of the same species mate and produce offspring.

Mule: A mule is an animal that results from breeding between a male donkey (jack) and a female horse (mare). Mules inherit desirable qualities from both parents; they're hardy like donkeys but larger and faster like horses.

Mutation: A mutation is any change that occurs in the DNA sequence. It can lead to variations within species and potentially new species altogether.

Natural Selection: Natural selection is a process in nature where organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to their environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to pass on these favorable genetic traits to their offspring.

Niles Eldredge: Niles Eldredge is an American biologist and paleontologist who collaborated with Stephen Jay Gould to develop the theory of punctuated equilibrium.

Postzygotic Isolation: Postzygotic isolation refers to mechanisms that prevent successful development and reproduction after fertilization has occurred between members of different species.

Prezygotic Isolation: Prezygotic isolation is a mechanism that prevents different species from interbreeding and producing hybrid offspring. This occurs before the fertilization of eggs.

Punctuated Equilibrium: Punctuated equilibrium is a theory in evolutionary biology which proposes that most species will exhibit little net evolutionary change for most of their geological history, remaining in an extended state called stasis. When significant evolutionary change occurs, the theory proposes that it is generally restricted to rare and rapid events of branching speciation.

Reproductive Isolation: Reproductive isolation occurs when different species are unable to interbreed and produce viable offspring due to physical, behavioral, or genetic barriers.

Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction where two parents contribute genetic material to produce offspring that are genetically different from either parent.

Speciation: Speciation is an evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.

Stephen Jay Gould: Stephen Jay Gould was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science who contributed significantly to the field of evolutionary biology by developing, along with Niles Eldredge, the theory of punctuated equilibrium.

Sympatric Speciation: Sympatric speciation is the process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region

Adaptive Radiation: Adaptive radiation is an evolutionary process where organisms rapidly diversify into multiple new forms especially when environmental conditions change creating new opportunities (niches).

Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event: This is another mass extinction event that occurred approximately 66 million years ago, marking the end of the Cretaceous Period and the beginning of the Paleogene Period. It's most famous for leading to the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs.

Dinosaurs: Dinosaurs are a group of reptiles that appeared during the Mesozoic Era, between 230 and 65 million years ago. They are characterized by their upright stance, with legs located directly beneath the body.

Ecological Stress: Ecological stress refers to pressure on an organism's ability to survive due to changes in its environment such as temperature shifts, food scarcity or increased competition for resources.

Great Dying: Also known as the "Permian–Triassic (P–Tr) extinction event", it refers to an extreme biodiversity crisis about 252 million years ago when up to 96% of all marine species and more than two-thirds of terrestrial species died out.

Permian-Triassic extinction event: The Permian-Triassic extinction event, also known as the "Great Dying," was a mass extinction that occurred approximately 252 million years ago, marking the end of the Permian Period and the beginning of the Triassic Period. It is considered to be the most severe extinction event in Earth's history, with up to 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct.

Rate of Extinction: The rate of extinction is the number of species that become extinct over a given period of time.

Rate of Speciation: The rate of speciation is the speed at which new species evolve from a single ancestral species.

Adaptive Traits: Adaptive traits are characteristics that increase an organism's chance of survival and reproduction in a specific environment.

Allele: An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene that are found at the same place on a chromosome.

Ecosystem Disturbances: Ecosystem disturbances are events or changes in the environment that significantly alter the structure and function of an ecosystem. These can be natural, like wildfires, floods, or hurricanes, or human-induced, such as deforestation and pollution.

Fitness: In biology, fitness refers to an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished by the variation at gene levels.

Population Survival: Population survival refers to how well a population can withstand changes in its environment over time due to factors such as disease, habitat loss or climate change.

Selective Pressures: Selective pressures are environmental factors that influence which organisms survive and reproduce. They can include things like availability of food, presence of predators, or changes in climate.

Abiogenesis: Abiogenesis is the process by which life arises naturally from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds.

Amino Acids: Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. They are the building blocks of life and are vital for a number of functions in the body.

Atmospheric Oxygen (O2): Atmospheric oxygen refers to the oxygen present in Earth's atmosphere. It makes up about 21% of our atmosphere and is essential for aerobic respiration in many organisms.

Chemical Experiments: Chemical experiments involve combining or manipulating substances to observe the resulting chemical reactions, often to test a hypothesis or understand a chemical process.

Clay Minerals: A group of hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates minerals that may contain minor amounts of other elements such as potassium, magnesium iron etc., typically formed over long periods through weathering processes.

DNA and RNA: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) are nucleic acids that carry genetic information in cells. DNA provides instructions for growth, development, functioning, and reproduction while RNA translates those instructions into proteins.

Enzymes: Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed in the process.

Fossilized Stromatolites: Fossilized stromatolites are layered rock formations created by the growth of microorganisms, particularly cyanobacteria. They are some of the oldest known fossils on Earth, dating back over 3.5 billion years.

Inorganic Precursors: These are simple compounds, often containing elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur, which participate in chemical reactions to form more complex molecules.

Meteorites: Meteorites are pieces of rock or metal from space that have survived their journey through Earth's atmosphere and landed on our planet's surface.

Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids are large biomolecules essential for all known forms of life. They include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), which carry genetic information.

Nucleotides: Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA. They consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Organic Molecules or Monomers: These are small molecules that can join together with other similar molecules to form larger structures known as polymers. They contain carbon atoms and are often found in living organisms.

Origin of Life on Earth: The origin of life on Earth refers to the process and timeline by which life first emerged on our planet, a subject of ongoing scientific research. It is generally accepted that this occurred around 3.9 billion years ago.

Panspermia: Panspermia is the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed by space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids and also by spacecraft carrying unintended contamination by microorganisms.

Peptide Bonds: A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule, releasing a molecule of water (H2O). This is a dehydration synthesis reaction.

Polymerization of Nucleotides: The process by which nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA and RNA) are linked together to form a long chain, or polymer.

Polymers: Large molecules made from many smaller units called monomers linked together in a chain. Examples include proteins (polymers of amino acids), DNA (polymers of nucleotides), and polysaccharides (polymers of sugars).

Primitive Earth Model: The primitive earth model is a scientific theory that describes the conditions and environment of early Earth, around 4.5 billion years ago.

Self-Replicating Entities: These are entities that can make copies of themselves. In biology, this often refers to molecules such as DNA and RNA.

Synthesis of Sugars: This refers to how living organisms create simple sugars like glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors through processes like photosynthesis or gluconeogenesis.

Flashcards for Key Terms in Evolutionary Biology

• Adaptations: Inherited characteristics that increase an organism's chance of survival and reproduction in a specific environment.

• Allele Frequency: How common an allele is in a population, calculated by dividing the number of times an allele occurs by the total number of alleles for that gene.

• Differential Reproductive Success: When certain individuals produce more offspring due to advantageous traits.

• Evolution of Species: Processes leading to changes in heritable traits in populations over generations.

• Fitness Benefits: Advantages gained from traits that enhance survival and reproduction.

• Heritable Variations: Differences in characteristics among individuals that can be passed on to offspring.

• Mutation: A change in DNA sequence that can lead to variations within species.

• Natural Selection: The process by which organisms with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more successfully.

• Phenotype: Observable physical properties of an organism resulting from genetic and environmental factors.

• Phenotypic Variation: Differences in physical traits among individuals of the same species.

• Selective Pressure: Environmental factors that influence the survival and reproduction of organisms.

• Artificial Selection: Humans breeding organisms to produce desired traits.

• Convergent Evolution: Different species independently evolving similar traits due to similar environments.

• Environmental Pressure: Influences from the environment that drive changes in organisms.

• Genetic Basis of Traits: How genes determine characteristics of organisms.

• Inheritance: The passing on of genetic material from parents to offspring.

• Mechanisms of Evolution: Processes such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection that drive evolution.

• Gene Flow: Transfer of genetic variation between populations.

• Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequency in populations.

• Speciation: The evolutionary process where populations evolve to become distinct species.

• Cladograms: Diagrams representing evolutionary relationships among organisms.

• Fossils: Preserved remains of organisms from the past.

• Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different organisms due to common ancestry.

• Vestigial Structures: Anatomical features that no longer seem to have a purpose.

• Punctuated Equilibrium: Theory suggesting species remain relatively unchanged, interspersed by rapid evolutionary events.

• Adaptive Radiation: Rapid diversification of species in response to new opportunities.

• Gradualism: Theory suggesting evolution occurs slowly and steadily over time.

• Ecological Isolation: When species do not mate due to different habitats.

• Reproductive Isolation: Mechanisms preventing different species from interbreeding successfully.

• Endosymbiosis: Theory describing how complex cells evolved from simpler ones through symbiotic relationships.