chapter 2 paragraph --> sentence notes

1.4 - CHALLENGES OF THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

INTRO SECTION

• The Articles of Confederation were fully ratified after years of discussions and delays over state land disputes and the Revolutionary War victory and independence.

• The challenges in ratifying the Articles of Confederation included a lack of national unity and power struggles and foreshadowed the governing problems that the United States would face later in the future.

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

• The Continental Congress drafted the Articles of Confederation to establish the new nation's first government, loosely uniting former colonies as states, which then crafted their own constitutions featuring distinct government branches, protected freedoms, and popular sovereignty.

• John Dickinson’s 1776 Articles draft established a “firm league of friendship” among states with limited national government powers.

• Controversy over state representation in the Confederation Congress, with larger states advocating for population-based votes and smaller states for equal votes, led to a system where each state received one vote.

• The New York-based Confederation Congress required nine state votes for legislation and unanimous consent for amendments, exercising powers over diplomacy, war, territory, civil liberties, extradition, and inter-state commerce and disputes.

AN INEFFECTIVE CONFEDERATION

• Fearing a strong national government after British abuses, Americans favored a state-centric system to ensure unity and accommodate diverse state needs and loyalties.

• The Articles of Confederation established a weak government that rendered the Confederation Congress ineffective, hindering domestic progress and threatening national stability.

FINANCIAL PROBLEMS AND INABILITY TO TAX

• The national government under the Articles of Confederation struggled financially due to its inability to directly tax, forcing reliance on reluctant state contributions and leading to a loss of foreign trust.

• The biggest problem of the Articles of Confederation was the lack of taxes, and although some people were in favor of taxes, the issue never went through to fix.

SHAYS’ REBELLION

• War veteran Shays led a rebellion due to economic hardship and high taxes, and although the uprising was suppressed, it showed the need for a stronger central government.

• Shays’ Rebellion ultimately proved how the lack of a centralized military was a threat to America.

• The Annapolis Convention, which was held to address economic issues under the Articles of Confederation along with the need for greater national unity, led to another convention in Philadelphia.

1.5 - RATIFICATION OF THE U.S. CONSTITUTION

INTRO SECTION

• The Constitution is often called a “bundle of compromises” because its 55 delegates engaged in countless compromises in order to design a government capable of doing both addressing future needs and uniting diverse interests and ideas of the nation’s people.

COMPETING INTERESTS

• At the Constitutional Convention, groups arose with differing views on important issues such as slavery, the executive branch, and the relationship between states and the United States national government.

CONSTITUTIONAL COMPROMISES

• The Constitutional Convention resulted in numerous compromises and eventually led to the creation of the Constitution.

DIFFERING PLANS

• James Madison drafter the Virginia Plan, which proposed a three-branch system with factors such as a bicameral legislature and national government supremacy.

• The New Jersey Plan, favored by small states, advocated for a unicameral legislature, equal state representation, state sovereignty, and limited national power.

THE GREAT COMPROMISE

• Roger Sherman combined ideas from the disputing groups to make a bicameral Congress with a House of Representatives based on state population and a Senate based on states getting equal representation.

IMPORTATION OF ENSLAVED PEOPLE

• The Constitutional Convention addressed major slavery issues by allowing the international slave trade to continue for twenty years and by including an extradition clause for runaway enslaved persons and fugitive criminals.

THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE

• The Electoral College was adopted as a compromise solution for electing the president, balancing various proposals for how the chief executive should be chosen.

MORE COMPROMISES

• Additional compromises were required to define the division of power between the federal and state governments, differentiate from the confederal system of the Articles, and establish the scope of Congressional laws and citizen rights.

• The Commerce Compromise allowed the federal government to regulate interstate trade by taxing imports but not exports, addressing a power deficiency of the Articles.

THE AMENDMENT PROCESS

• Recognizing that the Constitution might not be perfect, the framers included a two-stage amendment process in Article V, allowing for proposals by Congress or state conventions, and ratification by state legislatures or conventions.

• The amendment process balances rigid standards with flexibility, allowing it to be changed by Congress or state conventions and ratified by state legislatures or conventions, with some few successful amendments, including the Bill of Rights.

CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM

• The Constitution established a representative republic with democratic elections, federalism dividing power between national and state governments, and a necessary and proper clause to allow for governmental flexibility.

• The decision to grant all states equal Senate representation resulted in unequal representation and a disproportionate influence of smaller states' electoral votes.

RATIFICATION

• After its final draft, the Constitution was sent to states for ratification through conventions as outlined in Article VII, requiring nine states for approval, with some people refusing to sign due to concerns over individual rights.

A BILL OF RIGHTS

• Many people advocated for a bill of rights to secure the liberties gained from the revolution, criticizing the Constitution for its lack of guarantees regarding free speech, press, and protection against aggressive prosecution or cruel and unusual punishments, despite its inclusion of a few basic rights.

• While Anti-Federalists and some pro-Constitution leaders deemed a Bill of Rights essential, James Madison opposed it, arguing that such lists were mere "parchment barriers" and that enumerating rights could inadvertently exclude others, a concern that ultimately influenced the Ninth Amendment.

• As states ratified the Constitution, James Madison, influenced by demands for personal rights and Federalist assurances, compiled the Bill of Rights, which was fully ratified by 1791.

• The Bill of Rights outlines essential freedoms, like the First Amendment's protections for expression and religion, alongside guarantees for private property, due process, and powers reserved to the states.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEBATES TODAY

• The U.S. Constitution has governed for over 230 years, with debates from its drafting, such as individual rights and federal-state power, remaining relevant today.

INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND SEPTEMBER 11th

• Debates persist regarding the U.S. Constitution's balance between individual rights and governmental authority, with interpretations evolving over time with situations such as 9/11.

• Following the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. enacted new policies to counter threats, sparking ongoing debates about proper recognition of the Bill of Rights.

USA PATRIOT ACT

• As a way to come back from the 9/11 attacks, Congress passed a bipartisan USA PATRIOT Act (Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism) to expand the government authority to gather intelligence and share information to combat terrorism.

• The act faced scrutiny regarding constitutionality and threat to the 4th Amendment rights, disproportionately affecting Muslim communities and invading privacy.

EDUCATION: NATIONAL GOALS, STATE MANAGEMENT

• Policies regarding education were historically governed by states under the 10th Amendment, but this changed in the 20th century as the federal government assumed a greater role, furthermore continuing on with the pattern of contested central power as emphasized in issues such as civil liberties and the right to privacy.

• Acts passed during the Civil Rights Era and Cold War shifted federal involvement in education by providing funds to underserved schools while allowing states and localities to have broad discretion.

• The federal government increased its role and level of oversight in education with the No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2002 for improvements in teaching methods, testing to measure progress, and sanctions for underperforming schools.

1.6 - PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

INTRO SECTION

• The United States government was designed with branches and divisions in order for power to be diluted and to prevent abuses by majority groups.

THE THREE BRANCHES IN PRACTICE

• The three branches of government are headquartered in DC and are busy at work creating and refining the nation’s policy and providing access points and opportunities for citizens to voice their views.

LEGISLATIVE

• Members of Congress on Capitol Hill, including 435 House representatives and 100 senators, create laws, fund the government, and shape foreign policy, operating in separate chambers with committees and support staff.