4 The Age of PROGRESS and MODERNITY, Explained [AP Euro Review—Unit 7 Topic 5]

Introduction to Scientific Developments

• Late 18th to early 19th century: Science underwent significant changes in Europe, altering perspectives on existence and human understanding.

• The emphasis will be on the tension created by science against traditional beliefs.

Darwin and Evolution

• Introduction of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and natural selection.

• Darwin's assertions conflicted with religious beliefs on human origin and special creation.

• Resulted in unrest among the predominantly Christian population.

Rise of Positivism

• Positivism: A philosophical approach asserting that truth can only be established through scientific verification and mathematical proof.

  • Truth is deduced from empirical evidence.

  • Anything unverifiable scientifically is deemed non-true.

• Effect on Religion: Challenges that religion (Christianity) is based on divine revelation, contrasting with positivism's empirical evidence.

Religious Tensions

• Christianity claims that ultimate truths are discovered through God and the teachings in the Bible.

• Example: The central doctrine—the death and resurrection of Jesus—relies on faith, not scientific proof (e.g., blood cannot be viewed to prove atonement).

• Positivism posed a threat to traditional religious views.

Moral Relativism

• Emergence of moral relativism as a consequence of positivism.

  • No absolute truth; what is deemed true depends on personal perspectives.

  • Example of blind men and the elephant illustrates varying perceptions of truth.

• Christianity offers a definitive understanding of truth through divine revelation, unlike positivism's subjective nature.

Modernism and Its Influences

• Modernism captures the growing tensions of the scientific impact on truth and knowledge.

• Shift from rational enlightenment philosophies to irrationalism.

Irrationalism

• Challenges rationalist Enlightenment thinking, focusing instead on human impulses and instincts.

• Friedrich Nietzsche: Advocated that human decisions are largely driven by passions rather than rational thought.

  • Criticized Christian moral constraints as hindrances to creativity.

  • Notion that "God is dead" leading to human emancipation.

• Henri Bergson: Valued intuition in understanding reality, stating that science offers practical insights but falters in grasping true essence.

  • Societal progress arises not from rationality but from struggle and conflict.

Psychology and Sigmund Freud

• Freud applied irrationalism to psychology, suggesting subconscious drives inform behavior.

  • Repressed childhood experiences significantly influence adult decision-making.

• Development of psychoanalysis as a method to uncover subconscious influences, impacting future psychological studies.

Impacts on Natural Sciences

• Transition from Newtonian predictability to the chaos uncovered by late 19th and early 20th-century science.

  • Rejection of the idea that atoms are predictable; introduction of quantum mechanics by Max Planck.

  • Discovery of quanta reveals erratic behavior at atomic levels, indicating chaos rather than order in the universe.

Conclusion

• Planck’s findings shattered the Newtonian view of reality, creating uncertainty about the nature of existence.

• These developments highlight the overarching conflict between emerging scientific knowledge and established religious and philosophical doctrines.

Introduction to Scientific Developments

The late 18th to early 19th century marked a period of profound transformation in the realm of science across Europe, leading to significant alterations in perspectives regarding existence, knowledge, and the human condition. This era witnessed the emergence of new scientific principles that often clashed with traditional beliefs, sparking a contentious relationship between established religious doctrines and burgeoning scientific discoveries.

Darwin and Evolution

At the forefront of this scientific revolution was Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution, particularly the concept of natural selection, fundamentally challenged the prevailing religious narratives concerning human origins and the idea of special creation. Darwin's claims posited that species evolved over time through a process of adaptation and survival of the fittest, which was met with significant resistance from the largely Christian populace. The ensuing debates not only ignited discourse among scientists but also provoked widespread unrest and philosophical upheaval within contemporary society, as many grappled with reconciling their faith with emerging scientific evidence.

Rise of Positivism

Positivism emerged as a defining philosophical approach during this period, declaring that authentic knowledge could only be attained through scientific verification and mathematical proof. This perspective emphasized falsifiable hypotheses and empirical observations as fundamental routes to uncovering truth. Hence, any assertions or beliefs that could not withstand scientific scrutiny were dismissed as non-true. This created a formidable conflict, particularly with religious institutions such as Christianity, which traditionally upheld that ultimate truths stemmed from divine revelation, contrasting sharply with positivism's evidential basis.

Religious Tensions

Christian doctrine asserts that ultimate truths are derived from God, as articulated through scriptures such as the Bible. A quintessential example is the central doctrine of Christianity—the death and resurrection of Jesus—arguably reliant upon faith rather than empirical substantiation. This inherent conflict with positivism fostered an environment of tension, as the latter's insistence on verifiable evidence posed a substantial threat to traditional religious views.

Moral Relativism

The advent of moral relativism closely followed positivist thought, suggesting that truth is subjective and varies based on personal perspectives rather than being absolute. An illustrative example of this is the parable of the blind men and the elephant, which metaphorically demonstrates how individual perceptions can lead to different interpretations of the same truth. In contrast, Christianity offers a definitive understanding of truth grounded in divine revelation, thus providing a clear moral framework amidst the fluidity characterizing positivist approaches.

Modernism and Its Influences

Modernism encapsulated the escalating tensions surrounding the impact of scientific advancements on prevailing notions of truth and knowledge. The movement marked a shift away from rational Enlightenment philosophies towards a more chaotic worldview dominated by irrationalism, characterized by the prioritization of human instinct and impulse.

Irrationalism

Irrationalism contested the rationalist ideologies of the Enlightenment, proposing that human decisions are largely dictated by emotional drives rather than cold logic. Prominent thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche argued that Christian moral constraints stifle creativity and individuality, introducing the provocative notion that "God is dead," which he claimed would liberate individuals from the confines of traditional morality. Additionally, philosopher Henri Bergson advocated for the value of intuition in grasping reality, suggesting that while science may provide practical insights, it falters in grasping the true essence of existence. Bergson claimed that genuine societal progress is derived not from rational thought but from overcoming struggles and conflicts.

Psychology and Sigmund Freud

In the realm of psychology, Sigmund Freud applied the principles of irrationalism by positing that subconscious drives play a critical role in shaping behavior. Freud's exploration of repressed childhood experiences illuminated the ways in which these early influences impact adult decision-making processes. He developed psychoanalysis as an innovative method for uncovering hidden subconscious motives, significantly influencing the trajectory of psychological studies and practices in the years that followed.

Impacts on Natural Sciences

The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw a pivotal shift within the natural sciences, moving away from the predictability characteristic of Newtonian physics toward a more chaotic understanding of the universe. This period heralded the advent of quantum mechanics, notably through Max Planck's groundbreaking discoveries, which revealed that atomic behavior is inherently erratic and unpredictable. The ensuing knowledge that quanta exhibit strange and chaotic behavior challenged the previously held notion of a neatly ordered universe, thereby creating significant uncertainty regarding the nature of existence itself.

Conclusion

Planck’s discoveries effectively dismantled the Newtonian worldview, igniting a profound sense of uncertainty about reality and existence. These developments underscore a larger narrative regarding the conflicts between emergent scientific knowledge and entrenched religious and philosophical doctrines, marking a significant chapter in the evolution of human thought in the face of ongoing scientific advancement.