AP Psych Unit 7 Development and Intelligence

Development and Intelligence 

Developmental psychology- a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Jean Piaget- Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. He proposed the theory of cognitive development, which explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world.

Lev Vygotsky- Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who emphasized the role of social interaction in cognitive development. He believed that children learn and develop through their interactions with more knowledgeable individuals in their social environment.

Zone of proximal development- It refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

Conservation- the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of

concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Schema- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Accommodation- adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Assimilation- interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

object permanence- the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

sensorimotor stage- in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

preoperational stage- in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of

age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Egocentric- in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

theory of mind- people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings,

perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

concrete operational stage- in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about

6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

formal operational stage- in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

abstract thinking- Thinking abstractly refers to the ability to think beyond concrete, literal ideas and consider concepts that are not immediately present or tangible. It involves reasoning about hypothetical situations, understanding symbolism, and grasping complex ideas.

Scaffolding- In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and ultimately greater independence in the learning process.

Animism- Animism is the belief exhibited by children in Piaget's preoperational stage that inanimate objects have feelings, intentions, and human-like qualities.

Reversibility- Reversibility is the cognitive ability to understand that actions can be reversed, leading to the same or original state. 

telegraphic speech-This is a stage in language acquisition where a child, typically around the age of two, speaks using mainly nouns and verbs. Their sentences are often short and lack small connecting words.

Physical Development

developmental psychology- a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Zygote- the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an

embryo.

Embryo- the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Fetus- the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogen- (literally, “monster maker”) agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the

embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

fetal alcohol syndrome- physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

rooting reflex- The rooting reflex is an automatic response seen in newborn babies, who turn their face towards the stimulus and make sucking motions with the mouth when the cheek or lip is touched. This helps to ensure successful breastfeeding.

Habituation- decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation- biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively

uninfluenced by experience.

Autism- Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. It includes a wide range of symptoms, skills, and levels of disability.

stranger anxiety- the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

strange situation- Ainsworth's method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with the mother in a playoom situation

Attachment- An emotional tie to another person

secure attachment- Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

Insecure- Characterized complete dependence on a caregiver and extreme reluctance to explore one's environment; the result of unresponsive parenting.

critical period- An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

authoritative parenting- A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.

authoritarian parenting- ​​parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

permissive parenting- an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control

Social and Moral Development

Erik Erikson’s stages of development- This is a theory proposed by Erik Erikson that outlines eight stages of development from infancy to adulthood. Each stage presents a crisis or conflict which, when resolved, leads to psychosocial growth.

Identity- our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

basic trust- according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Self-concept- all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

cross-sectional study- A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research that analyzes data from a population at one specific point in time—it’s like taking a snapshot of the population.

longitudinal study- A longitudinal study is a research method in which data is collected from the same group of participants over an extended period of time to examine changes or developments that occur over time.

adverse childhood experiences- Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) refer to a range of negative and traumatic experiences that occur during childhood, such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. These experiences can significantly impact brain development, emotional regulation, and overall health throughout a person's life. 

Assessing Intelligence and the Dynamics of Intelligence

Intelligence- mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems,

and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)- defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative performance above or below average.

Mental Age- a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological

age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

Stanford-Binet- the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

General Intelligence (g)- a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others,

underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Savant Syndrome- a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an

exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

Emotional Intelligence- the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Aptitude Test- a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the

capacity to learn.

Achievement Test- a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

Standardization- defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

Normal Curve- the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Reliability- the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.

Validity- the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.)

Construct Validity- the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

Predictive Validity- the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict;

It is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.)

Stereotype Threat- The fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one identifies. This fear can actually lead to decreased performance.

Flynn Effect- The Flynn Effect refers to the observed phenomenon where average intelligence scores on IQ tests have been steadily increasing over time. This increase cannot be attributed solely to genetic factors and challenges psychometric theories that emphasize a significant genetic basis for measured IQ.

Growth Mindset- A growth mindset refers to the belief that one's abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and perseverance. It is the understanding that failure and challenges are opportunities for growth rather than fixed limitations.

Fixed Mindset- A fixed mindset is the belief that one's abilities, intelligence, and talents are static traits that cannot be developed or improved. This perspective leads individuals to avoid challenges, give up easily, and see effort as fruitless, as they believe their qualities are predetermined and unchangeable. This mindset can significantly influence learning, motivation, and overall achievement.

fluid intelligence- Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge or past experience. It involves skills such as abstract reasoning, problem-solving, and pattern recognition.

crystalized intelligence- Crystallized intelligence is the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and information that a person has acquired throughout their life. It includes language skills, vocabulary, and general knowledge.

Spearman’s General Intelligence (G Factor):The idea that there is a broad mental capacity that can be quantified on an intelligence test

Savant Syndrome:a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill

Down Syndrome:Extra copy of 21^st chromosome that can lead to some cognitive impairments

Achievement Tests: tests designed to assess what a person has learned.                  EX: AP Exams. SOLs.

Aptitude Tests: tests designed to predict a person’s future performance.                         EX: SAT’s. Drivers Test. NFL Combine

Flynn Effect: the more a test is given, the better people score on the test. 

Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results                                     EX: A student’s score on a test correlates with their performance in the class. 

Test-Retest: Can the same test takers achieve similar results?

Split Half: Measures consistency by breaking the test in half and comparing.

Validity: The extent to which a test does what it’s supposed to do.

Content Validity- the extent to which a test assesses the material it is covering.

Construct Validity: The extent to which a test assesses an abstract trait.                      EX: intelligence or extraversion 

Predictive Validity- the extent to which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict.

IQ = Intelligence Quotient 

Stanford-Binet: The most common American IQ Test administered

Standardization: Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Normal Curve (Bell Curve): Evenly distributed set of data in graph form

Intellectual disability: IQ score below 70 is considered mental retardation

Intelligence Continued

Analytic Intelligence: (Problem solving)

Creative Intelligence: (Creation/imagination)

Practical Intelligence: (Real World application/prioritization)

Pros:Can be measured and can help predict real-world success

Cons:Requires exhaustive testing and styles can overlap considerably. 

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities:Intelligence is broken down into 7 Factors: Verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, memory, and inductive reasoning

Emotional Intelligence:Our ability to:Perceive emotions,Understand emotions,Manage emotions,Use emotions for adaptive or creative thinking

Fluid VS. Crystalized Intelligence: Proposed by Raymond Cattell

Fluid Intelligence:the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge

Crystalized Intelligence:the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience (wisdom).

Fixed Mindset: belief that intelligence and abilities are innate and cannot be significantly changed.

Growth Mindset: belief that these qualities can be developed through effort and learning

Culture-Fair Tests: The goal of testing that is free of cultural bias

Stereotype Threat: the sense that you will be judged on the negative stereotype of your group rather than your own abilities

EX: Female students do better on exams for female professors or “Race-Primed conditions”

Stereotype Lift: a boost in performance if one thinks they will do better than other groups. EX: Track athletes during the running units in PE