ImmChinesePt4Fall2024

Resistance to Assimilation

• Sojourner Mentality

  • Chinese immigrants often practiced a sojourner mentality, intending to return to China rather than fully assimilate into American society.

  • This mindset contributed to separation from the larger culture.

• Passive Resistance

  • Similar to Irish and African ancestors, the Chinese mainly engaged in passive resistance rather than active confrontation.

  • Maintaining cultural heritage without assimilation is considered a significant form of passive resistance, creating ethnic enclaves such as Chinatown.

Formation of Chinatowns

• Cultural Identity

  • Chinatowns emerged as safe havens where Chinese immigrants could maintain their culture and heritage.

  • These neighborhoods featured Chinese architecture, signage, and cultural practices (e.g., traditional temples, shops).

• Economic Self-Reliance

  • Chinese businesses in Chinatowns thrived as they catered to their communities, often hiring only Chinese workers.

  • Economic initiatives allowed for a semblance of independence from mainstream American society.

Community Structure and Support

• District and Family Associations

  • Originated to provide social support and preserve culture among Chinese immigrants.

  • Functions included:

    • Aiding new arrivals with job placement and housing.

    • Caring for the sick and poor within the community.

    • Organizing cultural and social events.

    • Establishing schools and temples for religious and cultural education.

• Role in Resistance

  • These associations provided a framework to create a supportive community in lieu of government assistance.

  • Establishment of the Consolidated Chinese Benevolent Association facilitated collective advocacy for Chinese rights.

Legal Resistance

• Education and Newspapers

  • Founding of private schools for the education of Chinese children who were initially denied access to public education.

  • The establishment of newspapers shared Chinese cultural updates and later political advocacy amidst rising anti-Chinese sentiments.

• Court Cases

  • Important cases included Tape v. Hurley (1885):

    • Successfully argued for Chinese children's right to public schooling.

    • Demonstrated the legal struggle against discrimination despite facing new segregation laws.

Che Changping v. United States (1889)

• Background

  • Che Changping was denied re-entry to the U.S. despite holding a return certificate due to the Scott Act, which reinforced restrictive immigration laws.

  • His case highlighted the inadequacies within immigration law and the growing enforcement against Chinese laborers.

• Supreme Court Ruling

  • The Supreme Court ruled against Che, stating it had no jurisdiction over the constitutionality of the Exclusion Acts, prioritizing national security in immigration matters.

  • This ruling highlighted Congress's control over immigration and set precedents for future discrimination against Chinese immigrants.

Impact of Resistance

• Cultural Preservation

  • Combining efforts through newspapers, education, and community associations allowed Chinese immigrants to preserve their culture in America.

  • However, these efforts often reinforced separation rather than integration into American society, leading to further persecution.

• Legislative Discrimination

  • Despite resisting discrimination, by the end of this immigrant wave, conditions worsened for Chinese immigrants, contrasting with the experiences of other immigrant groups who effectively navigated assimilation.

  • The Chinese faced systemic barriers such as ineligibility for citizenship and exclusion from labor unions, preventing upward mobility.

Conclusion

• Long-term Outcomes

  • Although the resistance did not lead to immediate improvements in social status, it laid the groundwork for future generations to work towards greater inclusion.

  • The Chinese immigrant experience reflects ongoing struggles for identity, civil rights, and recognition in a broader societal context.