World History Unit 4 Test

Imperialism in Africa

European Interest in Africa (1400s-1800s)

• During the 1400s, Europeans first became interested in Africa, largely due to the availability of slaves.

• Tribal rulers in Africa sold prisoners of war to Europeans in exchange for goods like cloth, guns, and iron.

• Between 1450 and 1865, approximately 10 million slaves were transported by European traders to North and South America, where they were sold to sugar and cotton plantation owners.

• European companies (e.g., from France, England, Portugal, Holland, and Denmark) profited immensely, earning tens of thousands of dollars per voyage.

Shift in Attitudes Toward Slavery (1800s)

• Growing awareness of the inhumane treatment of slaves led to changes in public sentiment.

• Great Britain abolished the slave trade and declared slavery illegal across its colonies.

• Other European nations also began to view the slave trade unfavorably.

• Missionaries encouraged African rulers to stop selling prisoners as slaves.

Transition to New Trade Commodities

• European industrial needs shifted to products like peanuts and palm oil.

• Crops from the African interior were transported to the coast, where local tribesmen sold them to European traders.

• Despite active trade, Europeans had not yet established colonies, with only missionaries, explorers, and consuls scattered across the continent.

The Partition and Colonization of Africa

The Land Rush (1880s-1920s)

• By the 1880s, European colonial policies changed drastically.

• A "land rush" ensued, with Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Italy, and Belgium claiming nearly all African territories.

• Only Ethiopia and Liberia maintained their independence.

• Key motivations included:

  • Industrial Revolution demands for raw materials.

  • Wealthy businessmen seeking foreign investments.

  • Rivalries among European nations for markets, prestige, and power.

Conferences and Division of Africa

• Imperialist nations faced conflicts over territorial claims, leading to conferences to define boundaries and reduce tensions.

• Africa was divided on paper, and European nations sought control—peacefully or by force.

• Some African rulers submitted to European dominance, while others resisted through skirmishes or wars.

• By the 1920s, almost the entire continent was under European control.

Colonial Rule and Its Legacy

• Colonial rule lasted until post-World War II, when independence movements gained momentum.

• European nations were forced to choose between costly wars or granting independence peacefully.

Impacts of European Rule in Africa

Negative Impacts

• African interests were largely ignored.

• Resources were exploited for European benefit.

• Indigenous cultures and traditions were undermined.

Positive Outcomes

• Infrastructure such as roads and railways was developed.

• Educational opportunities increased.

• Africans from different regions met, exchanging ideas.

• Contact with European civilization introduced advancements in medicine, science, and technology.

Chief Mojimba’s Encounter

Chief Mojimba’s Account

• Mojimba was curious about a man with white skin traveling down the Lualaba River.

• Assuming the man might be a long-lost brother, the chief prepared a ceremonial greeting.

• His village prepared a feast and sang songs of joy as they journeyed to meet the man.

• However, as they approached, loud bangs erupted, killing several of Mojimba’s men.

Contrast to European Perspectives

• European engravings of such encounters often depicted explorers as heroic and Africans as aggressive, differing significantly from African accounts of peaceful intentions.

Cecil Rhodes and His Vision

• Cecil Rhodes, a wealthy diamond-mine owner, envisioned expanding the British Empire across Africa.

• His dream included a railway from the Cape to Cairo.

• A Punch cartoon illustrates his ambition, symbolizing the British imperialist vision of dominance and unity across the continent.

Mojimba and Stanley's Encounter

Mojimba could not have known at the time that his village had come to meet Henry M. Stanley, a man who would soon gain fame for his African explorations. Stanley had come to explore the Congo River. Unfortunately, a misunderstanding led Stanley to interpret Mojimba’s actions as a sign of war. Stanley wrote in his book Through the Dark Continent:

Stanley’s writings reflected the perspective of many Europeans in the late 1800s, who viewed Africa as a “dark continent” filled with savages. This view justified imperialism—the policy of conquering and ruling lands as colonies.

European Imperialism and Colonialism

Origins and Motivations

Colonialism, the acquisition and maintenance of colonies, can be traced back to European expansion in the 15th century. Initially motivated by the “Three G’s”—Gold, Glory, and God—European enthusiasm for colonization waned in the 1700s but returned in the late 1800s. This resurgence was driven by the “Three C’s”—Commerce, Christianity, and Civilization.

Explorers and Missionaries

Explorers and missionaries profoundly impacted Africa. During the early slave trade, Europeans remained on the coast, but by the late 18th century, they began exploring the interior. This exploration provided valuable information for trade and colonization.

One of the most famous missionaries, Dr. David Livingstone, sought to spread Christianity and end the slave trade. He wrote about his experiences with the Bakalahari people:

Missionaries were often welcomed by Africans, though some customs caused surprise or amusement.

The Scramble for Africa

Partitioning the Continent

The European race to claim African territories in the late 19th century is known as the Scramble for Africa. The process was rapid, with Africa partitioned among European powers within two decades. Factors contributing to this partition included the transition from a slave-trade economy to one based on natural products like palm oil, rubber, and cotton.

Key Figures

• King Leopold II of Belgium: In 1879, Leopold hired Henry Stanley to investigate the Congo River and claimed a territory over 80 times larger than Belgium. Leopold was motivated by wealth.

• Otto von Bismarck: The German Chancellor sought African territories for political reasons, hoping to counter France by encouraging British competition in Africa.

European Settlement

European nations encouraged white settlement in Africa. Examples include:

• British: Kenya and present-day Zimbabwe

• French: North Africa (viewed Algeria as an extension of France)

• Portuguese: Angola and Mozambique

The Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

To prevent conflicts, European nations convened in Berlin to formalize the colonization process. No African representatives were invited. Key outcomes included:

1. Free trade for European nations in the Congo.

2. Recognition of treaties with African kings as valid titles to territories.

3. A requirement to notify other nations of new territorial claims.

4. Commitments to protect African people, suppress slavery, and educate natives.

King Leopold II referred to the conference as an opportunity to divide “the magnificent African cake.” On February 26, 1885, the Berlin Act was signed by 13 countries, cementing Europe’s partition of Africa.

Colonialism's Legacy

Colonialism left deep marks on Africa’s societies, economies, and governance structures, with lasting impacts still felt today. The promises made at Berlin, such as protecting African welfare and education, were often ignored in favor of exploiting the continent’s resources.

In this Punch cartoon, King Leopold II is depicted as a snake, symbolizing his exploitative rule in the Congo. The man represents the suffering of the Congolese people under Leopold's regime.

Partition Required Three Stages

The Berlin Conference did not actually partition Africa. Instead, it set up rules and regulations for a process already underway. That process unfolded in three stages. By the end, many African countries were firmly under European control.

Stage 1: Treaty-Making with African Rulers

In the first stage, European agents approached African rulers to secure their recognition as "protectors." Treaties prevented African rulers from entering relationships with other European nations. These treaties were often signed without full understanding, as agents were deceitful or used military force. Many rulers believed they were signing treaties of friendship when, in reality, they were relinquishing autonomy.

Stage 2: Treaty-Making Between European Nations

The second stage involved treaties between European nations to define colonial boundaries. These boundaries, often vague and arbitrarily drawn, ignored African input. As a result, ethnic groups and nations were split between different colonial rulers, creating long-term issues.

Stage 3: Actual Occupation of African Countries

The third stage, known as the pacification stage, involved European troops suppressing African resistance. This brutal process saw rebellions crushed by military force. With Europe largely at peace between 1870 and 1914, colonial wars became opportunities for European military officers to seek advancement.

The Legacy of the Berlin Conference

Though European rulers signed the General Act of the Berlin Conference promising to protect Africans, suppress the slave trade, and provide education, these promises were largely ignored. Colonialism was not an act of civilization but an act of force, motivated by European self-interest.

Resistance to Colonialism

Africans resisted colonial rule fiercely despite European military superiority.

• Samori Touré (West Africa): Led a seven-year war to protect the Mandinka empire, manufacturing gunpowder and repairing rifles. He surrendered in 1898 after prolonged resistance.

• Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa (Asante, Ghana): Led a rebellion against the British, holding an officer and his wife captive before the Asante were ultimately overpowered after four years.

• King Menelik II (Ethiopia): Successfully defeated the Italians at the Battle of Adowa, inflicting heavy losses and shocking Europeans.

Colonial Policies and Methods

European colonizers enforced their rule through:

1. Military Strength: Suppressing resistance using advanced weapons.

2. Racist Policies: Policies were based on the belief in African inferiority, which shaped governance and cultural erasure.

Key Concepts

1. Assimilation vs. Administration

   • The French and Portuguese viewed their colonies as extensions of their countries, encouraging assimilation into their culture. Africans who met specific educational or cultural standards were granted citizenship, known as évolués in French colonies and assimilados in Portuguese colonies.

   • In contrast, the British and Germans treated colonies as separate entities, with a more paternalistic approach.

2. Colonial Administration

   • Direct Rule: Practiced by the French, Belgians, Germans, and Portuguese. This involved centralized systems with laws and administration directly controlled by the colonizing country.

   • Indirect Rule: Employed by the British, this allowed African leaders to manage local governance under British oversight.

3. Economic Exploitation

   • The colonies were primarily geared toward providing raw materials for European industries. Africans were often forced into labor, and their economies became reliant on cash crops like cocoa, cotton, and coffee for export. This led to long-term food insecurity and economic dependency.

4. Social and Cultural Impact

   • Colonialism introduced new systems like education, healthcare, and transportation. However, these services often benefited Europeans disproportionately, with urban areas receiving more focus than rural communities.

   • Missionaries brought Christianity, which introduced new moral codes (e.g., monogamy) and challenged traditional African values, sometimes causing cultural alienation. In response, African independent churches emerged, blending Christianity with African traditions.

5. Resistance and Nationalism

   • Leaders like John Chilembwe and Simon Kimbangu resisted colonial domination, often merging religious movements with early nationalist aspirations.

Critical Analysis

1. Advantages Europeans Held Over Africans

   • Technological superiority, including advanced weaponry like the Maxim machine gun.

   • Well-organized administrative systems and capital to invest in resource extraction and infrastructure.

2. Economic Focus on Exports

   • The emphasis on cash crops for export undermined local food production, creating economies highly vulnerable to market fluctuations and environmental conditions.

3. Social Transformation

   • Urbanization, education, and religious changes disrupted traditional lifestyles, creating new elites and fostering nationalist movements.

4. Unequal Development

   • While infrastructure development like railroads and harbors supported trade, they primarily served European economic interests rather than African welfare.

This led to significant disparities in wealth and access to resources, further entrenching colonial powers and exacerbating social inequalities. As a result, local populations often found themselves marginalized, with limited opportunities for economic advancement and participation in governance.

Old Imperialism vs. New Imperialism

Differences

Similarities

1. Both periods were shaped by elite political control.

2. Colonizers justified their authoritarian methods with claims of progress and order.

3. Export-oriented development integrated colonies into the global economy.

4. Sharp racial and social divisions were maintained:

   • Mexico and Indonesia: Multi-racial, hierarchical societies.

   • South Africa: Racial segregation.

5. Systems of exploitation and indebtedness were implemented.

6. Educational and legal systems from the colonial period persisted post-independence.

7. Recruitment of certain groups (e.g., Christian converts) for civil service roles.

8. Colonial societies increased inequalities, especially in urban areas.

Resistance to Colonial Rule

Impact of Colonization

Reasons for End

E.D. Morel and the Congo Free State

• Who: Edmund Dene Morel, a Liverpool-based shipping company employee, fluent in French.

• What He Observed:

  • Ships arriving from the Congo were laden with rubber and ivory but returned with army officers, firearms, and ammunition.

  • Noticed no goods were being exchanged, only exploitation.

• Deduction:

  • Discovered the existence of forced labor/slavery in King Leopold's Congo Free State.

  • Described profits as the result of forced labor sanctioned by King Leopold’s close associates.

• Significance:

  • Compared his discovery to uncovering a "secret society of murderers."

King Leopold II's Congo Free State, exposing the atrocities committed under his rule. The article describes how the Belgian king exploited the Congo as his personal possession, reaping immense profits, particularly from the rubber trade during the rubber boom. This wealth was built on the suffering of the Congolese people, who were subjected to a brutal slave labor system marked by mutilation, hostage-taking, and executions.

One of the most powerful voices against these abuses was E.D. Morel, a British journalist and human rights activist. Morel discovered the truth about the Congo's exploitation while working for a shipping company that transported goods to and from the region. Shocked by the scale of the atrocities, he resigned his position and dedicated his life to exposing the horrors of Leopold's regime.

Morel's relentless campaign included writing books, articles, and pamphlets, often using information leaked to him by insiders. He collaborated with Protestant missionaries who provided firsthand accounts and photographs of mutilations and massacres. These visual and written testimonies became key evidence in Morel's fight to raise public awareness and pressure governments to intervene.

One particularly shocking practice was the collection of severed hands as proof of kills by soldiers in Leopold’s private army. This gruesome evidence highlighted the dehumanizing cruelty of the system, where villagers who failed to meet rubber quotas faced death or mutilation.

The movement against Congo atrocities gained momentum, with Morel’s work inspiring debates in the British Parliament. In 1903, the House of Commons passed a resolution calling for humane governance in the Congo, reflecting the growing impact of Morel's advocacy. Despite attempts by Leopold and his allies to silence him, Morel's unwavering dedication helped expose the exploitation, laying the groundwork for modern human rights activism.

Morel: A Master of Leadership and Advocacy

A.J.P. Taylor writes, "Morel has never had an equal as organizer and leader of a Dissenting movement." Morel's success stemmed from his understanding of how to reach different audiences, securing support from both wealthy sympathizers, like Quakers such as the plain-living chocolate manufacturer William Cadbury, and factory workers. Financial backing from such individuals kept the Congo Reform movement alive.

Morel had a keen ability to tailor his message for his audience. To British businessmen, he highlighted how Leopold’s rubber monopoly had restricted their access to trade in the Congo. To the clergy, he emphasized Christian responsibility, quoting reports from missionaries. To the British public and their representatives in Parliament, he appealed to the widespread belief that England had a special duty to uphold decency in the world.

Morel’s communication was prolific, especially in the first half of 1906, when he wrote 3,700 letters. His extensive output of books, pamphlets, and newspaper articles about the Congo led to an even greater response: by 1908, he had amassed 20,000 letters about the Congo, which became the foundation of much of his published work. He cross-checked news, studied documents from Belgium, and corresponded with officials, journalists, and traders across Europe and Africa.

A master of mass media, Morel skillfully utilized photography. His Congo protest meetings often featured a slide show of around 60 photos depicting life under Leopold’s rule. These vivid images, viewed by millions, were powerful evidence that no propaganda could refute. Slides also displayed charts estimating Leopold’s profits and included poems that, while lacking in artistic merit, conveyed strong emotions:

No zeal, no faith, inspired this Leopold,
Nor any madness of half-splendid birth.
Coal-eyed, he loosed the bounds that rend and slay.
Fast that his coffers might be gorged with gold.
Exult him, Time! Forget him not. O Earth,
Trumpet his name, and flood his deeds with day.

Morel also mobilized journalists to amplify his message. He had close connections with the editors of major British magazines and newspapers, regularly contributing to prestigious outlets like The Times. He suggested candidates for reporters sent to Belgium or the Congo, ensuring sympathetic coverage. When American correspondent Richard Harding Davis visited Africa in 1906, he was provided with Morel's findings, which were echoed in his articles.

Thanks to Casement’s powerful report, the international media campaign Morel orchestrated spread globally. Morel’s meticulously kept files, which included 4,194 clippings on Congo reform from 1902 to 1912, helped fuel this campaign. He didn’t focus only on newspapers but also worked on literary projects, like Samba: A Story of the Rubber Slaves of the Congo, a 1906 boys' adventure novel. The author of the book thanked Congo Reform Association (C.R.A.) officials for their help in reviewing the manuscript.

Among the most effective spokespeople for the movement were John and Alice Seeley Harris, Baptist missionaries who had firsthand experience of the Congo’s atrocities. Alice had taken many of the photographs used in Morel's presentations. They spoke over 600 times in the first two years of their involvement, showing artifacts like whips and shackles from the Congo, and leading "Congo Sundays" in churches across England. The Harrises' powerful testimonies were pivotal in galvanizing public support.

Morel's efforts also spread to the United States, where he inspired the creation of the American Congo Reform Association. Its first president, Dr. G. Stanley Hall, was joined by prominent figures like Booker T. Washington, Mark Twain, and Stanford University president David Starr Jordan. Washington led a delegation of black Baptists to the White House, urging President Theodore Roosevelt to pressure Leopold. Twain, deeply moved by the cause, wrote a pamphlet titled Among Leopold’s Soliloquy, which raised awareness and funds for the Congo reform movement.

The campaign’s pressure eventually forced Leopold to consider divesting from the Congo, an outcome Morel had long advocated. The Belgian solution, in which the Congo would be handed over to Belgium under strict reforms, was reluctantly accepted by Morel, who believed it might offer better protection for the Congolese than Leopold's direct rule.

Though this was not a perfect solution, it marked the end of Leopold’s personal control over the Congo. In 1908, he transferred ownership of the territory to Belgium, receiving a large sum of money in return. The following year, he died, bereft of his prize possession.

Morel and Casement, profoundly affected by their involvement in the Congo reform movement, were both changed men. Casement, after his investigative work in the Congo, wrote, “In those lonely Congo forests where I found Leopold, I found also myself, the incorrigible Irishman.” He later applied his experience to advocate for Irish independence, ultimately resigning from the British Consular Service to join the nationalist movement. In 1916, he was hanged for treason.

The impact of the Congo reform movement, orchestrated by Morel, reshaped the fate of the Congo and its people, exposing the atrocities of Leopold’s reign to the world and calling for justice on an international scale.

E.D. Morel's Crusade for Congo Reform

E.D. Morel continued his crusade for Congo reform after Leopold's death, but as the years passed, he realized that the British government would never bring decisive pressure on Belgium for reforms in the Congo. This was because Belgium was a potential ally in the war that all of Europe was preparing for.

When World War I finally broke out in 1914, Morel was among the handful of people on either side in Europe who openly declared the war to be madness. He argued that through a series of secret treaties, England had become caught up in a needless cataclysm. Morel quickly became a major voice of anti-war dissent in England.

As a result, he faced significant opposition: mobs broke up meetings he organized, his telephone was tapped, his house was raided, and Scotland Yard opened his mail. Bertrand Russell, one of his colleagues in the anti-war movement, declared that “No other man known to me has had the same heroic simplicity in pursuing and proclaiming political truth.”

In 1917, Morel was sentenced to six months of hard labor and was taken through the gates of Pentonville Prison just one year after his friend, Roger Casement, had been executed there.

After the war, a devastated Britain saw that there was much truth in what Morel had been saying. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize and elected to Parliament in 1922. However, prison had broken his health, and he died of a heart attack in 1924, at the age of 51.

The Congo Reform Campaign's Impact

Did the Congo reform campaign save millions of lives? For many years, the conventional answer was yes. It would be ideal if this were true, because a magnificent movement deserves magnificent results. However, the truth is more somber. Some of the worst abuses continued even after Morel's efforts.

Imperialism: Big Question

Was New Imperialism good or bad? Did the benefits outweigh the costs?

Definition of Imperialism

Imperialism is the extension of power by acquiring territory around the globe or exploiting weaker nations to serve national interests. It is often referred to as "World Bully."

Colonization is the claiming of new lands by a mother country, which happened in North and South America during the 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. By the end of the 1700s, colonization declined.

The New Imperialism or 19th-century imperialism began in the later part of the 1800s. Under imperialism, the mother country may not actually own the territory but may control it. This control can be economic, political, or cultural.

This subject is still relevant today. For example, the United States has been called imperialistic, especially regarding recent involvement in the Middle East (i.e., Afghanistan and Iraq).

Timeline of Important Events

• 1839 - China and Britain clash in the Opium War

• 1850 - European trading with Africa becomes well-established

• 1853 - Crimean War starts

• 1857 - Sepoy Mutiny

• 1858 - British government takes direct control of India

• 1869 - Suez Canal opens

• 1884-1885 - Berlin Conference sets rules for African colonization

• 1899 - Boer War begins in South Africa

• 1900 - Boxer Rebellion fails

• 1905 - Japan defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War

• 1910 - Japan annexes Korea

• 1914 - Panama Canal opens, Great War begins

• 1947 - India gains independence from Britain

• 1948 - South Africa establishes apartheid system

• 1960 - Nigeria gains independence from Britain

• 1967 - Nigerian Civil War begins

• 1994 - South Africa holds its first multiracial election

Analyzing Imperial Motives

• Economic Motives:

  • Desire to make money

  • Expand and control foreign trade

  • Create new markets for products

  • Acquire raw materials and cheap labor

  • Compete for investments and resources

  • Export industrial technology and transportation methods

• Political Motives:

  • Desire to gain power

  • Compete with other European countries

  • Expand territory

  • Exercise military force

  • Gain prestige by winning colonies

  • Boost national pride and security

• Religious Motives:

  • Spread Christianity

  • Protect European missionaries in other lands

  • Spread European values and moral beliefs

  • Educate peoples of other cultures

  • End slave trade in Africa

• Exploratory Motives:

  • Desire to explore unknown or uncharted territory

  • Conduct scientific research

  • Conduct medical searches for diseases and their treatment

  • Go on adventures

  • Investigate unknown lands and cultures

• Ideological Motives:

  • Belief that the white race is superior

  • Cultures are “primitive”

  • Europeans should "civilize" other peoples

  • Great nations should have empires

  • Only the strongest nations will survive

Key Historical Events and Figures

• Congo Reform Movement (Late 19th Century):

  • The movement aimed to end the exploitation and atrocities committed in the Congo Free State under King Leopold II of Belgium.

  • Led by figures like E.D. Morel and Roger Casement, who documented the brutal treatment of Africans under Leopold’s rule.

  • The reformers’ efforts resulted in a population decline of around 10 million in the Congo due to forced labor, massacres, and disease.

• Leopold’s Rule in the Congo:

  • Leopold II's rule from 1885 to 1908 in the Congo Free State was marked by extreme violence, forced labor, and systematic exploitation.

  • The Congo was made to provide rubber and ivory, with severe punishments and killings for failure to meet quotas.

  • After international pressure and reform efforts, the Belgian government took control from Leopold in 1908, though exploitation continued.

• Missionaries and Reformers:

  • John and Alice Harris of the Anti-Slavery Society worked closely with Morel and Casement.

  • The Anti-Slavery Society, founded in 1839, remains the oldest human rights organization and continues its mission today.

2. Key Concepts:

• Human Rights and Colonial Exploitation:

  • The Congo reform movement tied into broader human rights movements, including the abolition of slavery, child labor, and women’s rights.

  • The fight for human rights continues today, drawing on historical examples such as the anti-slavery movement and the fight against apartheid in South Africa.

• The Role of the Congo Reformers:

  • They gathered evidence and publicized atrocities, which led to a greater international awareness of colonial abuse.

  • Their records of truth are vital to understanding the impacts of colonialism in Africa, a region where historical silences often obscure the truth.

3. The Congo Reformers' Advocacy:

• Publications and Advocacy:

  • Reformer E.D. Morel published numerous books and reports about the exploitation in the Congo.

  • Roger Casement worked to raise awareness through testimony and photographs of the brutal conditions in Congo.

  • Their efforts included traveling to the U.S. and Britain to speak at public meetings and displaying images of the atrocities.

• Visual Documentation:

  • The Congo reformers used "magic lantern" slides to document the abuse, showing photographs of victims and scenes of forced labor.

  • These slides are preserved today in the archives of Anti-Slavery International in London.

• Resistance and Denial:

  • King Leopold and his administration attempted to suppress the reformers’ findings, going so far as to banish reformers like Morel from Belgium.

4. Impact of the Congo Reform Movement:

• The reform movement had an enduring influence, despite Leopold’s efforts to discredit and suppress the truth.

• Legacy of the Congo Reformers:

  • Their efforts laid the groundwork for modern human rights movements.

  • Their work made the world aware of the exploitation in the Congo, directly leading to Belgium’s withdrawal from the Congo Free State.

• Modern Day Relevance:

  • The legacy of the Congo reform movement continues in today’s global human rights advocacy, including fights against issues such as child labor, genital mutilation, debt bondage, and domestic servitude.

5. Case Study: Henry M. Stanley and African Resistance:

• Henry M. Stanley’s Exploration:

  • Stanley, an American explorer, is famous for his expedition in the Congo and his encounter with African tribes.

  • He is often remembered for his role in "finding" Dr. Livingstone and his subsequent exploration down the Congo River.

• Meeting of Cultures:

  • Stanley's exploration involved confrontations with various African tribes, as seen in his account of meeting a flotilla of African canoes.

  • The African Resistance to Stanley’s presence is depicted in Stanley’s writings, including his dramatic descriptions of hostile encounters and battles with African forces.

6. Chief Mojimba’s Perspective on Stanley’s Arrival:

• The Story of Chief Mojimba:

  • Father Joseph Frassle recorded Chief Mojimba’s story when he encountered Stanley’s expedition.

  • The Basoko people, upon hearing of the “white man” traveling down the river, prepared to welcome him as a brother, assuming he had risen from the river (a key element in their spiritual beliefs).

• Misunderstanding and Conflict:

  • Despite their peaceful intentions, the encounter turned hostile when Stanley’s men opened fire on the Basoko people.

  • This stark contrast between the African expectation of a peaceful meeting and the violent response from Stanley’s expedition highlights the cultural misunderstandings between Europeans and Africans.

7. Summary of Key Themes:

• Colonial Exploitation and Atrocities:

  • The Congo Free State was a major example of exploitation under European colonial rule, resulting in the suffering of millions.

  • The Congo reform movement was crucial in documenting these abuses, despite efforts to suppress the truth.

• Resistance and Historical Silences:

  • Resistance to exploitation took many forms, from international campaigns to local African resistance.

  • The movement helped fill in the historical silences surrounding colonialism and its effects.

• Modern Human Rights Movements:

  • The Congo reformers’ legacy continues to inform modern human rights activism, showing the connections between colonial history and present struggles.

8. Key Quotes and Excerpts:

• E.D. Morel on the Congo's Exploitation:

  • “...the best scholarly estimates are that during the Leopold period and its immediate aftermath, the population of the Congo dropped by roughly ten million.”

• Stanley’s Description of the African Canoes:

  • “A flotilla of gigantic canoes bearing down upon us, which both in size and numbers utterly eclipse anything encountered hitherto.”

• Chief Mojimba’s Account:

  • “We were open-mouthed with astonishment. A man with white flesh! We said to ourselves, he must have got that from the river-kingdom.”

9. Important People to Remember:

• E.D. Morel: Journalist and reformer who exposed atrocities in the Congo.

• Roger Casement: Diplomat and reformer, helped document human rights abuses.

• King Leopold II: King of Belgium who controlled the Congo Free State.

• Henry M. Stanley: Explorer known for his expeditions in Africa.

• Chief Mojimba: African leader who encountered Stanley’s expedition.

Key Historical Figures & Concepts

1. Cecil Rhodes

   • Relationship with African workers: Rhodes was involved in the farming work but was known for exploiting his workers. He had a complex relationship where he relied on their labor but also established a sense of respect for them over time.

2. The Sudan Uprising (1884)

   • British government sent Charles Gordon to investigate. It took Gladstone several months to send troops to Khartoum. Unfortunately, Gordon was killed before British troops arrived.

3. David Livingstone's African Expedition

   • Objective: To explore the interior of Africa and find a trading route.

   • His mission was a failure: Many of his companions died, and none of his goals were achieved.

4. Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone

   • Disraeli: Prime Minister known for promoting imperialism.

   • Gladstone: Also a Prime Minister, but with differing views on imperialism. Gladstone wanted to overthrow the Turkish Empire due to its oppressive actions, while Disraeli saw British involvement as necessary to secure the Suez Canal.

5. Suez Canal and Imperialism

   • The British government was keen to control the Suez Canal as it was vital for trade routes, especially to India. Disraeli secured control of the Canal in 1875.

6. Queen Victoria’s Views on Imperialism

   • Queen Victoria’s approach was driven by the desire for dominance and expansion of the British Empire, believing it was England's destiny to rule as much of the world as possible.

7. David Livingstone's Legacy

   • While his mission was unsuccessful, he was famous for discovering the Victoria Falls and for his efforts to end the African slave trade.

8. French Missionary Schools in Africa

   • Mary H. Kingsley’s Observations:

     • Subjects taught: French language, religious studies, and some practical skills for girls like sewing and washing.

     • Kingsley critiques the lack of technical education, arguing that Africa needed more practical skills such as farming, which the mission schools failed to provide.

     • She believed that missionaries and colonialists were imposing European values, which caused discontent among African communities.

9. Exploitation in Africa

   • Henry M. Stanley’s Letter: Stanley discusses the potential for trade in the Congo region and the challenges posed by violent tribes. He highlights the potential of African tribes but also the exploitative conditions of trade, suggesting that European enterprise could benefit the region but at a significant cost to local populations.

Key Questions for Review

1. Cecil Rhodes and African Workers

   • How did Rhodes balance exploitation and respect for his African workers?

2. Sudan Uprising (1884)

   • What happened to Charles Gordon during the Sudan uprising, and why was the British intervention delayed?

3. David Livingstone’s Expedition

   • What were Livingstone’s goals, and why did his expedition fail?

4. British Imperialism and the Suez Canal

   • Why was the Suez Canal so crucial for British interests, and how did Disraeli secure British control?

5. Disraeli vs. Gladstone

   • Compare and contrast Disraeli and Gladstone’s views on imperialism.

6. French Mission Schools in Africa

   • What subjects were taught at French mission schools, and how did these subjects serve French imperial goals?

7. Henry M. Stanley’s Exploration

   • How did Stanley describe the potential benefits of trade in the Congo, and what challenges did he face?

8. Mary H. Kingsley’s Critique

   • How did Kingsley critique the education system in French mission schools, and what did she think Africa truly needed?

Primary Source Analysis

1. French Missionary Schools in the Congo:

   • Kingsley noted that while girls received sewing and washing instruction, these skills often had little practical value in the African context. What was her argument about the inadequacy of the education provided?

2. Stanley’s Letter:

   • How does Stanley portray the African tribes in his letter? What were his hopes for trade, and how did he plan to overcome the obstacles presented by local tribes?

3. Exploitation in the Congo:

   • Based on the account from the report, how did both European and African exploitative practices affect the native populations of the Congo?

• Backgrounds: Disraeli, born in 1804 to a Jewish historian, converted to Christianity and had a turbulent career before entering Parliament. Gladstone, born in 1809 to a wealthy merchant family, had a privileged education and a clear path to Parliament.

• Political Careers: Disraeli initially struggled in politics, but after undermining Conservative leader Robert Peel, he eventually rose to prominence. Gladstone, in contrast, was a successful and respected public speaker who quickly gained influence in the Whigs and later the Liberal Party.

• Differences in Ideology: Disraeli was more focused on preserving traditional institutions such as the monarchy and Church of England, while Gladstone advocated for reforms like free trade and greater rights for working-class people.

• Key Events: Their rivalry intensified over the repeal of the Corn Laws (grain tariffs), with Disraeli criticizing Peel's decision to support tariff repeal, leading to a split in the Conservative Party. Gladstone's eventual shift from conservatism to liberalism further deepened the divide.

• Reforms: Disraeli is credited with passing major reforms, such as regulations to improve working conditions, housing, and food safety, while Gladstone focused on expanding suffrage and promoting free trade.

1. Language Barrier and Miscommunication

   • Impact on Europeans:

     • European administrators, like Joyce Cary in Nigeria, struggled with language barriers, even after studying the local languages.

     • Language caused difficulty in communication, leading to misunderstandings and creating distance between colonizers and the native population.

     • In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe illustrates the danger of not understanding the native language, as seen when a white man is killed for not speaking the language properly.

   • Impact on Nigerians:

     • For Nigerians, speaking English became essential to communicate with the British, creating a hierarchical structure where those who spoke English had advantages over those who did not.

     • The language barrier often made natives appear "childish" or "foolish," reinforcing the colonial mindset of European superiority.

2. Financial Issues and the Strain of Colonial Rule

   • Inadequate Funding for Development:

     • Colonial administrators, despite the imperial mission, often faced strict financial constraints.

     • In Mister Johnson, characters like Rudbeck find themselves dealing with bureaucratic inefficiency and limited funding, which hindered actual development and led to corruption (e.g., embezzling funds for road construction).

   • European Perspective:

     • European administrators viewed their colonial mission as beneficial for Africa, bringing modern amenities, legal codes, and infrastructure. However, they often failed to understand the deeper social and economic issues affecting the colonies.

3. Colonial Disillusionment

   • Rudbeck’s Experience:

     • Rudbeck, a European administrator, is depicted as naïve and inexperienced. His idealistic vision of colonialism quickly clashes with the harsh realities of corruption, inefficiency, and lack of resources.

     • Johnson, a native informant, manipulates Rudbeck's ignorance, demonstrating the complexities of colonial rule.

   • Cynicism and Resistance:

     • The colonized natives, while outwardly cooperating, subtly resist colonial authority. For example, the subversive actions of characters like Waziri reveal the tensions between the colonizers and the colonized.

4. Subversion and Resistance of Natives

   • Natives in Mister Johnson are not passive victims. Characters like Waziri use bribery and manipulation to gain advantage within the colonial system.

   • The novel highlights how the colonial project often relied on the cooperation of natives, but also how this cooperation was layered with subtle resistance and strategic actions to undermine colonial goals.

Character Analysis:

1. Mister Johnson

   • Portrayal: Johnson is depicted as a clever, resourceful, and opportunistic native who plays a pivotal role in the novel.

   • Symbol of Colonialism: Johnson represents the complexities of colonial rule—he is both part of the colonial system and, at the same time, subverts it.

   • Striving for Britishness: Throughout the novel, Johnson's attempts to align with British ideals highlight his desire for status and his belief in the superiority of British culture. However, his actions often conflict with this ideal, revealing the contradictions of colonial identity.

2. Rudbeck

   • Inexperience and Naivety: Rudbeck embodies the European administrator who arrives with little understanding of the practical challenges of colonial rule.

   • Financial and Administrative Struggles: His attempts to establish colonial infrastructure, such as roadbuilding, are hampered by both lack of resources and an inefficient bureaucracy.

   • Disillusionment: Rudbeck's eventual frustration and failure to implement effective changes reflect the overarching theme of disillusionment with the colonial project.

Significant Concepts:

1. Manichean Opposites:

   • The colonial project often operated on binary oppositions: the superior European vs. the inferior native, civilization vs. savagery, etc.

   • Language played a key role in establishing and reinforcing these oppositions, with English speakers seen as superior.

2. The Role of Financial Systems in Colonialism:

   • Colonial administration was heavily reliant on financial systems, yet the colonial treasury was often underfunded, causing friction between administrators and their superiors.

   • The tension between the European belief in the righteousness of the colonial mission and the reality of its financial limitations is a central issue in the novel.

3. Cultural and Linguistic Complexity:

   • The novel emphasizes the vast cultural and linguistic diversity within Nigeria, which complicates colonial administration.

   • Even though Rudbeck learns some native languages, they fail to bridge the gap between him and the locals, highlighting the inherent difficulties of colonial communication.

Key Questions:

1. Why was there a large "cultural gulf" between the British colonizers and the Nigerian natives?

   • The cultural, linguistic, and educational differences created misunderstandings and distanced the two groups, making true cooperation difficult.

2. What does Mister Johnson represent in terms of colonialism and its problems?

   • Johnson embodies the contradictions of colonial rule: a native who seeks British approval but also uses colonial structures to his advantage, highlighting both the opportunities and the limitations of colonial life.

3. How does the construction of the North Road symbolize both progress and destruction?

   • The road is crucial for connecting different parts of Nigeria, but its construction symbolizes the imposition of European ideals and the disruption of traditional African life.

4. Was Mr. Johnson successful in becoming "British"? Why or why not?

   • While Johnson attempts to adopt British values and gain favor with the colonizers, his actions often betray his desire for personal gain rather than true assimilation. His success is therefore limited and ultimately unfulfilling.

1. British and French Colonial Administration

   • Britain: Utilized indirect rule, maintaining traditional local leaders in power while exerting control over economic and political decisions.

   • France: Preferred direct control, integrating colonies more fully into the French system, with French officials running local governments.

2. Motives for Imperialism in Africa

   • Economic exploitation (raw materials for European industries).

   • Strategic control (military bases, trade routes).

   • Social Darwinism and "civilizing" missions (belief in European superiority).

3. African Independence

   • Two countries that remained independent in 1914: Ethiopia and Liberia.

   • African society pre-imperialism: Diverse and complex societies with their own systems of government, religion, and trade.

4. Key Events and People

   • Berlin Conference (1884-1885): European powers divided Africa among themselves, ignoring indigenous cultures and boundaries.

   • King Leopold II of Belgium: His personal control over the Congo Free State led to atrocities.

   • David Livingstone: Missionary and explorer who promoted European presence in Africa.

   • Rudyard Kipling: Author of "The White Man's Burden," which justified imperialism.

   • Cecil Rhodes: British imperialist who expanded British control over southern Africa.

5. Key Conflicts and Terms

   • Boer War (1899-1902): Conflict between the British and Dutch settlers in South Africa.

   • Suez Canal: Key waterway controlled by Britain to access colonies in Asia and Africa.

Imperialism in India

1. British Rule in India (The Raj)

   • Economic Role: India was Britain's "Jewel in the Crown" due to its vast resources (cotton, tea, jute) and strategic location.

   • Cultural and Social Divisions: British administrators maintained a separate lifestyle, believing in their racial superiority and avoiding social interaction with Indians.

2. Sepoy Mutiny (1857)

   • Cause: Indian soldiers (sepoys) revolted against the British East India Company, fearing disrespect to their religion through the use of cartridges greased with animal fat.

   • Outcome: The mutiny led to the direct control of India by the British government, ending the East India Company’s rule.

3. Indian Nationalism

   • Indian National Congress (INC): Formed in 1885, initially aimed at seeking greater representation for Indians in government; later became more nationalistic and pushed for full independence.

   • Muslim League (1906): Established to represent Muslim interests and counterbalance the Hindu-dominated INC.

   • Mahatma Gandhi: Led nonviolent resistance movements, including the Salt March (1930) and Quit India Movement (1942), to demand Indian independence.

Key Figures in Indian Independence

1. Bhagat Singh: A revolutionary who believed in violent resistance to British rule. He became a martyr after being hanged for his role in the assassination of a British officer.

2. Chandrasekhar Azad: A key figure in the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), which advocated for violent revolution against the British.

3. Ram Prasad Bismil: A founder of the HSRA and involved in the famous Kakori Train Robbery to fund the revolutionary cause.

4. Subhas Chandra Bose: A prominent nationalist leader who advocated for armed struggle against British rule and formed the Indian National Army with the support of Japan during World War II.

Gandhi vs. Revolutionary Movements

1. Non-Violent Resistance:
   Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violent civil disobedience (Satyagraha) was in stark contrast to the violent methods of the HSRA.

   • The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) was a peaceful protest against British rule but was suspended after the Chauri Chaura incident where 22 policemen were killed.

   • Salt March (1930): Gandhi led a march to the sea to protest British salt taxes, gaining global attention.

2. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA):
   A more radical movement that rejected Gandhi's non-violence and aimed to achieve independence through armed struggle.

   • The Kakori Train Robbery (1925) was one of their most notable actions.

   • After several key leaders were executed, the organization lost its coherence and influence.

Indian Independence and Aftermath

1. Partition of India (1947):

   • India was divided into two nations: India and Pakistan, primarily along religious lines (Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan).

2. The partition led to widespread violence, mass migrations, and significant loss of life.

Nationalism and Independence: Gandhi’s beliefs about the inequality of British rule are evident, particularly his views on how colonial laws and the British military actions (like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre) led to resentment and a growing sense of nationalism among Indians. Gandhi advocates for non-violence but acknowledges the oppressive system.

The Clash of Cultures: The documents provide insight into the cultural clash between British colonialists and the Indian population. British historians like Sir Alfred Lyall and Indian historians like S. N. Sen discuss the inevitability of conflict due to differing ideologies, values, and the despotism of British rule.

The Partition and Violence: The partition of India in 1947, led by figures such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, resulted in mass violence, as predicted by Gandhi. The aftermath saw large-scale killings, with Gandhi’s own assassination being a tragic event stemming from religious tensions.

Colonial Legacy: After independence, the legacies of British colonialism continued to affect India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka in terms of political and economic challenges. The division between Hindus and Muslims was a significant issue, leading to the creation of Pakistan and later Bangladesh.

The Hindu/Muslim Rift: The documents also touch upon the tensions between the Hindu and Muslim communities in India, which were exacerbated by the political struggle for independence and the creation of Pakistan.

Here's a cleaner and more organized format for the timeline section:

Timeline of Important Events

1839 A.D.

• China and Britain clash in the Opium War.

1850 A.D.

• European trading with Africa becomes well established.

1853 A.D.

• Crimean War starts.

• Commander Perry enters Tokyo harbor.

1857

• Sepoy Mutiny.

1858 A.D.

• British government takes direct control of India.

1869 A.D.

• Suez Canal opens.

1884-1885 A.D.

• Berlin Conference sets rules for African colonization.

1899 A.D.

• Boer War begins in South Africa.

• U.S. declares its Open Door Policy in China.

1900

• Boxer Rebellion fails.

1905

• Japan defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War.

1910

• Japan annexes Korea.

• British claim the entire area of Nigeria as a colony.

1914

• Panama Canal opens.

• Great War begins.

1947

• India gains independence from Britain.

1948

• South Africa establishes apartheid system.

1960

• Nigeria gains independence from Britain.

1967

• Nigerian Civil War begins.

1994

• South Africa holds its first multiracial election.

Study Guide on Imperialism in Africa and India

Definitions and Key Concepts

• Imperialism: The extension of power by acquiring territory around the globe or exploiting weaker nations to serve national interests, often referred to as "World Bully."

Old vs. New Imperialism

• Old Imperialism (1450-1750): Focused primarily on the Americas, coastal areas of Africa, and Asian islands, motivated by “God, Glory, and Gold”. It involved trading posts and limited governance through trading monopolies.

• New Imperialism (1870-1914): Characterized by the acquisition of large territories in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent, primarily motivated by economic interests for raw materials and new markets. It involved direct control by imperial nations through the establishment of colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence.

Colonial Administration

• British Administration: Utilized indirect rule, maintaining traditional local leaders in power while exerting control over political and economic decisions.

• French Administration: Preferred direct control, making colonies extensions of France, with French officials running local governments.

Motives for New Imperialism in Africa

• Economic Motives: Desire to exploit raw materials and create new markets for European products.

• Political Motives: Gain power, prestige, and territory while countering rival European nations.

• Religious Motives: Spread Christianity and European values.

• Ideological Motives: Belief in European superiority and a duty to “civilize” other cultures.

Independence in Africa

• Two African Countries Remaining Independent in 1914: Ethiopia and Liberia.

African Society Pre-Imperialism

• African societies were diverse and complex, with their own systems of governance, trade, and traditions before New Imperialism began.

Key Events and Figures

• Berlin Conference (1884-1885): European powers divided Africa among themselves without involving African leaders.

• Leopold II of Belgium: King notorious for his brutal exploitation of the Congo.

• Edmund Dene Morel: Exposed the atrocities in the Congo against King Leopold II's regime.

• David Livingstone: Missionary and explorer advocating for the abolition of the slave trade.

• Benjamin Disraeli: Promoted imperialism; Prime Minister involved in securing the Suez Canal for Britain.

• William Gladstone: Advocated for humanitarian concerns but differed from Disraeli on imperial policy.

• General Charles Gordon: Known for his role in the Sudan Uprising and the delayed British intervention.

• Cecil Rhodes: British imperialist who sought to expand British control in southern Africa.

• Rudyard Kipling: Authored "The White Man's Burden," which justified imperialism as a civilizing mission.

• Henry Stanley: Explorer famous for his expeditions in Africa, particularly in relation to the Congo.

• Mary Kingsley: Critiqued missionary education and the imposition of European values in Africa.

Conflicts and Key Terms

• Boer War: Conflict between the British and Dutch settlers in South Africa.

• Commonwealth and Dominion: Refers to the formal associations of independent states that were former British colonies, maintaining ties with Britain.

• White Man's Burden: A concept that suggested that it was the duty of Europeans to civilize the colonies.

• Crimean War: A conflict that showcased the imperial rivalry in the mid-19th century.

• Suez Canal: Key waterway controlled by Britain for trade routes, especially to India; secured by Disraeli in 1875.

• Raj: Refers to British rule in India.

• Sepoys: Indian soldiers employed by the British East India Company.

Imperialism in India

• “Jewel in the Crown”: India was crucial for British wealth due to its resources and strategic location.

• Control of the Suez Canal: Essential for British trade and maintaining access to India.

• Assumption of Control in India: Directly after the Sepoy Mutiny in 1858, the British government took control from the East India Company due to growing unrest and dissatisfaction with colonial rule.

• Resentment of British Rule: Led to increased nationalist sentiments, protests, and eventual demands for independence.

Sepoy Rebellion

• Immediate Cause: The use of animal fat in greased cartridges sparked outrage among Indian sepoys.

Key Figures in Indian Nationalism

• Mahatma Gandhi: Prominent leader advocating for non-violent resistance against British rule.

• Muslim League: Established to represent Muslim interests and counterbalance the Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress (INC).

• Indian National Congress: Formed in 1885 to seek greater representation for Indians in government; eventually advocated for full independence.

Indian Independence Timeline

• Independence Date: India gained independence on August 15, 1947.

• Terms of Independence: Division into two nations—India and Pakistan, primarily along religious lines.

• First Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru.

• Message of Rang de Basanti: The film critiques the apathy of modern Indian society and advocates for social justice, highlighting the sacrifices of the freedom fighters.

Response to Imperialism

• State that Modernized: Japan rapidly modernized and westernized its economy, society, and army in response to pressures from imperialism.