Untitled Flashcards Set

What is histology?

The study of tissues

What is a tissue?

A group of cells that act together to perform a specific function.

What are the fundamental tissues?

Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve
(Elephants Can Make News)

What is the function of epithelial cells?

Cover, line, and protect the body and the internal organs.

What is the function of connective tissue?

Framework of the body. Provides support and structure to organs.

What is neuroglia?

The neurons and connective tissue cells that compose nerve tissue.

What ability does muscle tissue have?

Ability to contract and shorten.

What is muscle tissue classified as?

Voluntary(skeletal muscles) and involuntary(smooth & cardiac)

What is meiosis?

The cell division that takes place in the gonads, i.e. the ovaries and testes.

What two layers compose the skin?

Epidermis and dermis.

What is the epidermis?

The outermost protective layer of dead keratinized epithelial cells.

What is the dermis?

The underlying layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and the associated skin tissues.

What are the layers of the epidermis?

Corneum
Lucidum
Granulosum
Germivatum ( basale & spinosum)
Mnemonic: Candy Lions Growl Great.

What does the protein pigment melanin protect against?

Radiation from the Sun

What is the dermis composed of?

Fibrous connective tissue with nerve endings, blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands.

What are the 2 types of sweat glands?

ecrine & apocrine

What do ecrine sweat glands produce?

Sweat. Regulate body temperature.

What do apocrine sweat glands produce?

Secretions contain bits of cytoplasm from cells, attracting bacteria that produces body odor.

What do sebaceous glands secrete?

They secrete sebum through the hair follicles, which lubricates the skin and prevents drying.

What secretion produces oil?

Holocrine secretion.

What are sebaceous glands prone to during adolescence?

Becoming clogged and attracting bacteria.

What protein composes the hair and skin?

Keratin

What makes the body's framework?

Bone, cartilage, ligaments & joints.

What are the functions of the skeletal system?

Support, movement, blood cell formation, protection of internal organs, detoxification, muscle attachment, mineral storage. A MIME BATHED SEALS SINGING "MY PONY"

How are bones classified?

By shape.
Long
Short
flat
irregular
sesamoid
LEMURS SING SALSA FOR INDIANS

What is the name for the cells that compose compact bone?

Osteoblasts

What occurs to osteoblasts when they become fixed in the dense bone matrix?

They stop dividing but continue to maintain body tissues as osteocytes.

How many bones make up the axial skeleton?

28 bones of the skull. 14-facial, 14-cranium.

How many bones make the facial skeleton?

2 nasal bones
2 maxillary bones
2 zygomatic bones
1 mandible
2 palatine bones
1 vomer
2 lacrimal bones
2 inferior nasal bones

What are the bones of the cranium?

single occipital
frontal
ethmoid
sphenoid
paired parietal
temporal
ossicles

What bone structures are in the ossicles (ears) ?

malleus, incus, stapes

How many bones make the skeletal column?

33 bones

How many cervical vertebrae in the skeletal column?

7

How many thoracic vertebrae in the skeletal column?

12

How many lumbar vertebrae?

5

How many sacral vertebrae?

5

How many coccygeal vertebrae?

1-the tailbone

What makes up the final part of the axial skeleton?

the thorax
the sternum
12 pairs of ribs.

What makes up the appendicular skeleton?

the bones of the girdle and limbs

What bones make the upper appendicular skeleton?

pectoral & shoulder girdle
clavicle
scapula
upper extremities

What are the bones of the arm?

Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals (wrist bones)
Metacarpals (hand bones)
phalanges (finger bones)

What bones make the lower part of the appendicular skeleton?

The pelvic girdle or os coxae

What bones make the os coxae?

fused ilium
ischium
pubis

What bones make up the lower extremities?

femur
tibia
fibula
tarsals (ankle bones)
metatarsals (foot bones)
phalanges (toe bones)

How do muscles make movement?

Contraction in response to nervous stimulation.

What occurs in muscle fibers during contraction?

Myosin & actin filaments slide together.

What structures make up muscle cells?

Myofibrils made up of sarcomeres.

What must be present for a muscle cell to contract?

Calcium and ATP

What does nervous stimulation from motor neurons cause in the muscles?

Release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

What is the function of calcium in muscle contraction?

Attach to inhibitory proteins on the actin filaments of the muscle cell, moving them aside.
This forms cross bridges between actin and myosin filaments.

Why are the skeletal muscles of the muscular system considered voluntary?

Because they are under conscious control.

How do skeletal muscles work?

In pairs: the prime mover and the antagonist.

What is the function of the prime mover?

The muscle that executes a given movement.

What is the function of the antagonist?

The muscles that executes the opposite movement of the prime mover.

What are synergists?

Muscles that work together with the prime mover.

How are muscles classified?

According to the movements they elicit

What are the two classifications of muscles?

Flexors and extensors.

What is the function of flexors?

Reduce the angle at the joint.

What is the function of extensors?

Increase the angle at the joint.

What is the function of an abductor muscle?

Draw a limb away from the midline of the body.

What is the function of adductors?

Return the limb back toward the body.

What makes up the nervous system?

The brain, spinal cord & nerves.

What are the functional units of the nervous system?

The neuron.

What are the main parts of the neuron?

Cell body
Axon
Dendrites

What is the function of the dendrites?

Transmit impulses toward the cell body

What is the function of the axon?

Transmit impulses away from the body

What two systems make up the nervous system?

CNS-Central nervous system
PNS-Peripheral nervous system

What makes up the PNS?

All the nerves that transmit information to and from the CNS.

What is the function of sensory (afferent) neurons?

Transmit information to and from the CNS.

What is the function of Motor (efferent) neurons?

Transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS toward the effector organs such as muscles, glands, and digestive organs.

What are the 3 major parts of the brain?

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Medulla Oblongata

What is the function of the cerebrum?

Movement & sensory input.

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Muscular coordination.

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

Controls vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.

How long is the spinal cord?

18 inches long and extends from the base of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebrae.

How many pairs of nerves exit the spinal cord?

31 pairs of nerves exit the spinal cord.

What are simple (spinal) reflexes?

Those in which nerve impulses travel through the spinal cord only and do not reach the brain.

What is the function of the endocrine system?

Assist the nervous system in homeostasis and plays important roles in sexual maturation.

Where do the endocrine and nervous system meet?

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland

What does the hypothalamus govern?

The pituitary gland and is controlled by the feedback of hormones in the blood.

Which has more long-lasting effects on the body, the endocrine or the nervous system?

The endocrine system

What are hormones?

Chemical messengers controlling growth, differentiation & metabolism of cells.

What are the two major groups of hormones?

Steroid and nonsteroid

What is the effect of steroid hormones?

Enter the cell and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus.

What is the function of some nonsteroid hormones?

Serve as protein hormones.

What is the function of protein hormones?

Stay at the cell surface and act through second messenger.

What is the usual second messenger used by protein hormones?

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

How do hormones affect cell activity?

Alters the rate of protein synthesis.

Which gland is considered the "master gland"?

The pituitary gland

Where is the pituitary gland located?

Attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk called the infundibulum.

What are the two major portions of the pituitary gland?

Anterior lobe-adenohypophysis
Posterior lobe-neurohypophysis

Why are the hormones of the adenohypophysis called tropic hormones?

Because they act mainly on other endocrine glands.

What are the tropic hormones?

STH
GH
ACTH
TSH
FSH
LH

What is the STH or GH hormone?

Growth Hormone

What is the ACTH hormone?

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

What is the TSH hormone?

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

What is the FSH hormone?

Follicle-stimulating hormone

What is the LH hormone?

Luteinizing hormone

What hormones are released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary?

Oxytocin (labor hormone)
ADH-Antidiuretic hormone.

What are some important endocrine glands?

Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenals
Pancreas
Gonads (ovaries & testes)

What materials make up the blood?

55% plasma
45% formed elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.

Where are all the elements in blood formed?

Red bone marrow.

What are erythrocytes transformed for?

The transport of O2.

What is most O2 bound to in erythrocytes?

The pigmented protein hemoglobin.

How are the five types of leukocytes distinguished?

Size
Appearance of nucleus
Staining properties
Presence or absence of visible cytoplasmic granules

Which white blood cells are active in phagocytosis?

Neutrophils and monocytes

Which white blood cells make antibodies?

Lymphocytes

In which process are platelets active?

Blood clotting

What is the function of blood?

O2 transport
Carry CO2 and metabolic waste away

What is found in 10% of plasma?

Proteins
Ions
Nutrients
Waste products
Hormones

All these dissolve or suspend in H2O.

What is the function of the heart?

Sends blood to lungs for oxygenation through the pulmonary circuit & to the remainder of the body through the systemic circuit.

Where is blood received in the heart?

Blood is received in the atria

Where is blood pumped into circulation in the heart?

The ventricles

Which valve is on the right side of the heart?

Tricuspid

Which valve is on the left side of the heart?

Bicuspid

Where are the semilunar valves in the heart?

Found at the entrances of the pulmonary trunk and the aorta.

What supplies blood to the myocardium?

The coronary arteries

Where does blood drain to from the myocardium?

Directly into the right atrium through the coronary sinus.

Where is the heart beat initiated?

By the sinoatrial node and transmitted along a conduction system through the myocardium

What is a cardiac cycle?

The period from the end of the next ventricular contraction to the end of the next ventricular contraction.

What is the name for the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle?

Systole

What is the name for the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle?

Diastole

What structures are included in the vascular system?

ateries
veins
capillaries

Where do arteries carry blood?

Toward the heart

Where do veins carry blood?

Away from the heart

What occurs in the capillaries?

Blood and surrounding tissues exchange water, nutrients, and waste products.

Where do the systemic arteries begin?

With the aorta, which sends branches to all parts of the body

What happens to arteries as the go further from the heart?

They become thinner

What is the name for the smallest arteries?

Arterioles

What are the names of the veins parallel to the arteries?

Carry the same name as the arteries

Which are the largest veins?

Superior and inferior venae cavae

How is the structure of the walls of arteries?

Thick and elastic in order to carry blood under high pressure

What are causes vasoconstriction and vasodilation?

The contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the arterial walls.

What does the contraction of smooth muscle in the arterial walls influence?

Blood pressure and blood distribution to tissues

How is the structure of the veins in comparison to the structure of arteries?

Thinner and less elastic, as they carry blood under lower pressure

What are the components of the respiratory system?

Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
lungs
muscles surrounding ribs

Where is respiration controlled?

The respiratory control center of the medulla

What is the function of the respiratory system?

Supply O2 and eliminate CO2

What is external respiration?

The exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood through the alveoli

What is internal respiration?

The exchange of gases between blood and the body cells.

What is the function of the passageways between the nasal cavity and the alveoli?

Conduct gases to and from the lungs.

What is the function of the upper passageways?

Warm, filter, and moisten incoming air.

What lines the upper respiratory tubules?

Cilia to help trap debris and keep foreign substances from entering the lungs.

What occurs during inhalation?

The contraction of the diaphragm to enlarge the thoracic cavity and draw air into the lungs

What occurs during exhalation?

The lungs recoil as the respiratory muscles relax and the thorax decreases in size.

When is oxygen released from hemoglobin?

As the concentration of O2 drops in tissues

What happens to carbon dioxide in red blood cells?

Some is carried in solutions or bound to proteins in the blood.
Most is converted to carbonic anhydrase

What does the changing of carbon to carbonic anyhydrase release?

Hydrogen ions, which regulate blood pH

Which structures make the alimentary canal?

mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
anus

What are the accessory organs of the alimentary canal?

Liver
Pancreas
Gallbladder

What structures produce saliva?

Three pairs of salivary glands

What is the enzyme in saliva that starts complex carb digestion?

Amylase

What are the four main layers of the digestive system?

From innermost to outer:
Mucous membrane
Submucous layer
Muscular layer
Serous layer

What substance is secreted by the stomach when food enters it?

Hydrochloric acid

What is chyme?

Soupy substance resulting from the stomach churning and mixing the bolus.

What happens to chyme?

The stomach moves it into the small intestine

What occurs in the small intestine?

Digestion & absorption of food.

What substances help digest food in the small intestine?

enzymes from the small intestine and pancreas and bile from the liver.

Besides enzymes, what other substances are contributed by the pancreas?

water to dilute the chyme
bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acid from the stomach

What are the 3 major regions of the small intestine?

The duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum

Where are nutrients absorbed?

Through the walls of the small intestine.

What nutrients are absorbed into the blood?

The amino acids and simple sugars derived from proteins and carbs.

Where are most fats absorbed?

Into the lymphs and lacteals, eventually added into the bloodstream.

Where do nutrients enter for decontamination?

Nutrients enter the liver through the hepatic portal vein.

What are villi?

Small finger-like structures that increase the surface area of the intestinal wall.

What is the function of the large intestine?

Reabsorbs water, stores and eliminates undigested food.

What are the five portions of the large intestine?

Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum

What structures make up the urinary system?

2 kidneys
2 ureters
bladder
urethra

What are the functional units of the kidney?

The nephrons

What is the function of the nephrons?

Filter material out of blood brought through the kidneys by the renal artery.

In which renal structure does filtration actually occur?

Bowman's capsule of the nephron.

What force aids filtration?

Blood pressure aids filtration in the Bowman's capsule

Which components in glomerular filtrate reenter the blood?

Components such as water, glucose, and ions, reenter the blood leave the nephron by diffusion and reenter the blood.

What is reabsorbed in the tubules of the nephron?

Water

What is the final product produced by the nephrons?

Urine

What are the two functions of the male and female sex organs?

Production of gametes and hormones.

What controls the functions of the male and female sex organs?

Tropic hormones from the pituitary gland.

What is the difference between reproductive activity between men and women?

Reproductive activity is cyclic in women, but continuous in men.

What forms the gametes?

Meiosis

Where does sperm develop in the male sex organs?

Within the seminiferous tubules of the testes

Where is testosterone produced?

In the intersitial cells between the seminiferous tubules.

What does testosterone influence?

Sperm cell development & secondary male sex characteristics such as body hair & a deep voice.

Where are sperm stored once mature?

In the epididymis of each testis.

What makes up the pathways for the sperm during ejaculation?

vas deferens
ejaculatory duct
urethra

What lies along the pathways for sperm?

The glands that produce semen, the transport medium for sperm.

What hormones control testicular activity?

FSH-regulates sperm production
LH (Intersitial cell stimulating hormone)-stimulates testosterone production.

What occurs in the female ovarian follicles every month?

FSH stimulates eggs to ripen within the follicle.

What is the function of estrogen during the woman's cycle?

Prepare the endometrium of the uterus for pregnancy.

What occurs at the 14th day of the female cycle?

A surge of LH is released from the pituitary gland.

What is the function of LH?

Stimulate ovulation and the conversion of the corpus to the corpus luteum.

What does the corpus luteum secrete?

Progesterone and estrogen which stimulates the development of the endometrium.

What happens if fertilization occurs?

The corpus Luteum remains functional.

What occurs when fertilization does not occur?

The corpus luteum degenerates and menstruation begins.

What occurs to the egg after ovulation?

The egg is swept to the oviduct or fallopian tube.

What occurs to the fertilized egg?

The zygote travels to the uterus and is implanted to the endometrium.

What nourishes the fetus in the uterus?

The embryo is nourished by the placenta.

What forms the placenta?

Maternal and embryonic tissue.

Other than nourishment, what is another function of the placenta?

Maintain the endometrium and prepare the breasts for milk production.

Male reproductive organs

Female reproductive organs