Reconstruction, Black Codes, & Jim Crow

Reconstruction Overview

What was Reconstruction?

A pivotal period after the Civil War, Reconstruction aimed at rebuilding the South’s devastated economy and infrastructure, granting rights and integrating former slaves into society. Key features include:

• Establishment of the Freedmen’s Bureau: Created to assist freed African Americans and oversee their transition to freedom.

• Military occupation of southern states: Enforced federal laws and maintained order through Union troops, particularly in the face of local resistance.

• Passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments: These amendments abolished slavery, guaranteed citizenship and equal protection, and secured voting rights regardless of race, respectively.

• African American representation in Congress: Notably, African Americans started to hold positions in government, reshaping the political landscape.

• Increase in Northern population due to migration of former slaves: This migration altered demographics, created labor shortages in the South, and fueled economic competition in Northern cities.

Freedmen's Bureau

• Established: 1865, financed by Congress.

• Goals:

  • Provide critical assistance such as food, clothing, shelter, and medical care for freed African Americans.

  • Establish educational institutions to promote literacy and vocational training.

  • Supervise contracts between freed individuals and employers to protect the rights of laborers.

  • Manage confiscated or abandoned lands to redistribute property to freedmen.

  • Aid in reuniting families and legalizing marriages disrupted by slavery.

Military and Lincoln's Reconstruction

• Military Reconstruction: Implemented laws through Union martial law, creating a significant federal presence in the South during and after the Civil War.

• Lincoln’s 10% Plan: Required that only 10% of a state's voting population sign a loyalty oath and enact the 13th Amendment for reentry into the Union. It was seen as a lenient approach, aimed at fostering reconciliation, but it faced severe congressional opposition and was never fully enacted.

Wade-Davis Bill

• Introduced by Radical Republicans in Congress (1863, passed in 1864).

• Required over 50% of state populations to take an oath of loyalty and comply with the 13th Amendment for a state's readmission. It aimed for harsher terms but was pocket-vetoed by Lincoln, as he believed it would undermine his reconstruction efforts.

Andrew Johnson's Reconstruction Plan

• Transition of Power: Following Lincoln’s assassination, Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency, bringing a more lenient approach to Reconstruction.

• Policies: Allowed Southern whites to establish new state governments, inadvertently contributing to the rise of Black Codes, policies designed to restrict African American rights.

• Pardon Policy: Offered widespread pardons to many white Southerners, initially excluding prominent Confederate leaders and wealthy planters. This approach alienated many in the North and exacerbated tensions in the South, contributing to divisions.

Black Codes

• A series of laws enacted in Southern states to limit the freedoms of former slaves:

  • Occupational Restrictions: Laws prescribed which jobs freedmen could pursue, often forcing them back into low-paying, exploitative labor.

  • Voting Rights Limitations: Enforced discriminatory practices that prevented African Americans from voting.

  • Lack of Funding for Education: Other laws curtailed access to education and essential economic opportunities.

• Common practices included:

  • Vagrancy laws that penalized unemployed individuals.

  • Sharecropping and tenant farming arrangements that kept many African Americans in a cycle of debt and dependency.

  • Debt peonage systems that left them bound to landowners indefinitely.

Sharecropper Cycle of Poverty

• The sharecropper arrangement allowed individuals to farm land in exchange for a portion of the crop, usually half.

  • They often purchased supplies on credit from landowners, leading to further debt.

  • After harvesting, sharecroppers frequently discovered they owed more than they earned, trapping them in perpetual poverty.

Andrew Johnson's Presidency

• Views on Reconstruction: Johnson was viewed as a “War Democrat” advocating for a swift restoration of the Union without major protections for freedmen.

• Key Actions:

  • Vetoed critical legislation like the Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil Rights Acts, undermining efforts for racial equality.

  • Opposed the 14th Amendment, resulting in significant congressional backlash, including the passage of the Tenure of Office Act.

  • Impeached in 1868 but narrowly remained in office by a single vote, reflecting the intense political strife of the era.

Congressional Reconstruction

• Combatting Black Codes: Congress aimed to overturn restrictive laws and enacted protective amendments (13th, 14th, 15th).

• The 1867 Reconstruction Act: Divided the South into military districts to enforce order and protect African Americans' rights.

• African American Political Engagement: Encouraged civic participation, evidenced by leaders such as Hiram Rhodes Revels, the first African American to serve in Congress.

Reconstruction Amendments

• 13th Amendment: Officially abolished slavery throughout the United States.

• 14th Amendment (1868): Established citizenship at birth, equal protection under the law, and guaranteed privileges and immunities.

• 15th Amendment (1870): Insured universal male suffrage regardless of race, aimed at empowering African American voters.

End of Reconstruction

• Rutherford B. Hayes: Ended Reconstruction in 1877 largely due to Southern political pressure against federal intervention.

• Consequences: The withdrawal of Northern troops resulted in the dissolution of the Freedmen’s Bureau and a significant decline in protections for African Americans.

Rise of Jim Crow Laws

• Legalization of Segregation: The 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case established the principle of "separate but equal,” undermining the ethos of the Reconstruction Amendments.

• Exploitation of Legal Loopholes: Southern governments employed tactics like literacy tests, poll taxes, and the grandfather clause to disenfranchise Black voters.

• Rampant Violence: Lynching and other forms of racial terror were used systematically to instill fear among African Americans and suppress their rights.

Violence During Reconstruction

• Resistance to Reconstruction efforts often led to violent confrontations, including riots targeting African American institutions, such as those in Memphis.

The KKK and White Supremacy

• Formation of the KKK (1865): Established by former Confederate officials as a violent response to Reconstruction, aiming to restore white supremacy.

• The White League: Founded in 1874, attempted coups in various Southern states, including Louisiana, to reclaim political control from Republican governments.

Conclusion

• Final Thoughts on Reconstruction: A period marked by significant tensions and conflicts that ultimately led to a rollback of protections for African Americans, setting the stage for the oppressive Jim Crow era that followed.