In-depth Notes on Political Ideologies and Social Cleavages

Political Ideologies

• Definitions and Importance:

  • Coherent structures of beliefs that shape political parties' positions.

  • Represent 'programmatic commitments' resistant to change.

  • Act as interpretive frameworks connecting various political issues.

• Historical Context:

  • Origin of "left" and "right" from the French Revolution (1789).

  • Left aligned with revolution and opposition to monarchy; right supported traditional institutions.

Social Cleavages

• Definition and Characteristics:

  • Cleavages refer to social conflicts or divisions within society.

  • Dimensions:

  • Social: Includes groups based on social classes, religions, languages, and ethnicity.

  • Cultural: Focus on values, beliefs, and collective identities.

  • Organizational: Related to entities like churches and trade unions established to defend group interests.

• Historical Origins:

  • Research by Lipset and Rokkan identifies roots in historical events (e.g., Protestant Reformation) that predate political parties and democracy.

Political Cleavages

• Types and Effects:

  • Socially determined lines dividing citizens into groups.

  • Can lead to the formation of political parties (e.g., religious or workers' parties).

  • New cleavages emerging from multiculturalism, environmental issues, and globalization.

• Persistence of Cleavages:

  • Lipset & Rokkan's theory suggests that cleavages remain stable over time, influencing political systems.

  • Electoral laws can perpetuate existing cleavages, either favoring majoritarian or proportional representation systems.

Interpretations of Revolutions

• The Two Revolutions:

  • Fundamental transformations in the 19th and 20th centuries leading to the establishment of parties and systems.

  • Democratization process entails extensions of civil, political, and social rights.

Cleavage-Party Relationships

• Specificity of Cleavages:

  • Unique set of cleavages exist per country, not all cleavages result in political party formation.

  • Importance of the saliency of these conflicts, with some parties representing multiple cleavages.

Frozen Cleavage Structures

• Contributions to Persistence:

  • Sustained collective identities and interests necessitate ongoing defense in policies.

  • Electoral saturation restricts new party emergence due to existing alignments.

  • Both majoritarian and proportional systems shape the expression of cleavages.

Electoral Changes

• Evolutions since 1960s:

  • Social Structure: Decline of traditional party clients (farmers, blue-collar workers).

  • Increased numbers of white-collar workers with fluid party preferences.

  • Electoral Behavior: Shift towards individual preferences, reduced solidarity.

  • Party Organizations: Adaptations in parties to become more inclusive (catch-all parties).

Silent Revolution

• Conceptual Framework by Inglehart:

  • Transition from materialist to post-materialist values, reflecting changes in societal priorities post-WWII.

  • Emergence of new social movements (civil rights, feminism, environmentalism).

Counter-Silent Revolution

• Rise of Traditional Politics Due to Insecurities:

  • Economic and cultural fears leading to resurgence of materialist politics.

  • Notable for the popularity of radical right parties, impacting European political dynamics.

Changes in Ideological Spaces

• Kitschelt's Framework:

  • New axes of political competition emerge, redefining traditional left-right dynamics.

  • Distinguishes between GAL (Green, Alternative, Liberal) vs. TAN (Traditional, Authoritarian, Nationalist).