— Physiological Techniques —

• Lesion - tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

• Electrical Recordings (EEG) - an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

• CT (computed tomography) Scan - a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan.

• PET scan - a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) - a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.
  

— Neuroanatomy —

Forebrain

• Frontal lobe - behind the forehead involved in speaking muscle movements and making judgments

• Parietal lobe - on the top of the head toward the rear it includes the sensory cortex

• Occipital lobe - back of the head it includes the visual areas of the brain

• Temporal lobe - above the ears it includes the auditory areas

• Corpus Collosum - Band of neural fibers that connects the brain hemispheres and which allows for the carrying of messages between hemispheres

Midbrain (Limbic system)

• Hippocampus - processes memory

• Amygdala - two almond shaped neural clusters hat influence fear and aggression

• Hypothalamus - directs maintenance activities(eating drinking body temperature) and governs the endocrine system with the pituitary gland also thought to be the reward center of the brain

• Thalamus - located on top of the brainstem it is sensory switchboard directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex it gives replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hindbrain

• Medulla - the control center for heartbeat and breathing

• Reticular formation - nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

• Cerebellum - "little brain" on rear of brainstem coordinates voluntary movement and balance

• Split brain - condition in which two hemispheres of the brain are isolated mainly due to the severing of the corpus collosum

— Functional organization of Nervous System —

• Nervous System - Speedy electrochemical communication system consisting of nerve cells from the peripheral and central nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain - converts messages sent through Nerve Network into responses to be acted out be the body

• Spinal cord - Nerve highway that allows for the transmission of peripheral nerve signals to the brain

• Motor neurons - cells in the brain and spinal cord that allow us to move, speak, swallow and breathe by sending commands from the brain to the muscles that carry out these functions

Peripheral (PNS) - connects the CNS to the rest of the body

• Somatic - controls voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles

• Autonomic - controls Self-regulated action of internal organs and glands

  • Sympathetic(arousing) - it arouses body mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

  • Parasympathetic(calming) - calms the body conserving its energy

— Neural Transmission —

Neuronal Structure

• Axon -passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

• Dendrites - receive messages from other cells

• Cell body - the cell's life-support center

• Terminal branches of axon - form junctions with other cells

• Myelin sheath - covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
  

• Glial cells - cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

• Action Potential - a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

• All-or-none response - neurons either fire or they don't.

• Refractory period - a resting pause. The neuron pumps the positively charged sodium atoms back outside

• Electrical Transmissions (positive and negative ions) - move in and out of the axon as the message is transmitted.

• Synapse - the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite and cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

• Neurotransmitters - chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps bet ween neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

• Acetylcholine - Enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

• Dopamine - Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

• Norepinephrine - helps control arousal and alertness.

• Serotonin - Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

• GABA - a major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

• Endorphins - natural opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

• Excitatory signals - like pushing a neuron's accelerator.

• Inhibitory signals - like pushing a neuron's brakes.

— Endocrine System — 

• Endocrine system - the body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream.

• Hormones - chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocri ne glands that are produced in one tissue and affect another.

• Adrenal glands - a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, which help to arouse the body in times of stress.

• Thyroid gland - affects metabolism among other things.

• Pituitary Gland - the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

• Pancreas - regulates the level of sugar in the blood.

• Testes - secrete male sex hormone testosterone or androgen.

• Ovaries - secrete female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.

— Genetics — 

• Dominant trait - a trait that will show over the recessive trait; one allele is dominant

• Recessive trait - a trait that will be suppressed by dominant gene because both parents must have it; both alleles are recessive

• Genotypes - genotypes are the possible gene combinations created by DNA Of parents

• Phenotypes - the observable result of having a gene such as having gene for clark hair and having dark hair

• Chromosomes - threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain g enes (46 in humans). Abnormalities appear when there is either an addition, deletion, or mutation of the chromosome

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) - a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes which will decide on what traits we carry