Unit 1 English Review

AP English Language: Introduction to Argumentation and Philosophy

I. Vocabulary

1. syllogism

   • because p is q

     and q is r

     then p is r

   • deductive reasoning

2. timocracy

   • honor and military success is valued above all

   • governance where leaders are the honorable^

3. deductive reasoning

   • Starting with a general argument then applying it to specific cases to reach conclusions

4. inductive reasoning

   • starts with a specific case and leading to a general argument/conclusion

5. epicureanism

   • happiness comes from moderation, simplicity, friendship, and community

   • overcome superstition and the belief in gods/deities/divine intervention

     • leads to religious skepticism

6. cynicism

   • the purpose of life and the way to gain happiness is to achieve virtue, in agreement with nature, following one's natural sense of reason by living simply and shamelessly free from social constraints

   • rejected all conventional desires for wealth, power, glory, social recognition, conformity, and worldly possessions

   • pairing down life to the essentials

7. skepticism

   • judgement is suspended (do not judge) of a concept without evidence

8. Academic Skepticism

   • Arcesilaus - knowledge is impossible

9. classical oration

   • The traditional way to arrange an arguemnt

     1. introduction

     2. narration

     3. confirmation

     4. reputation

     5. conclusion

10. enthymeme

    • basically a syllogism without the middle reasoning

      • because p is q

      • and q is r

      • then p is r

11. anaphora

    • repetition at the beginning of sentences

12. epistrophe

    • opposite of anaphora

    • repetition at the end of sentences

13. stoicism

    • Founded by Zeno of Citium

    • Consider themselves the heirs of socratic moral philosophy

    • Influenced development of christian morality/theology

    1. Virtue is sufficient for happiness (Eudaemonia)

    2. Other “goods” should be regarded with indifference

       1. only the individual’s actions/attitudes are within our power

    3. The world is ordered by God

       • 4 Cardinal virtues

         1. Prudence

         2. Temperance

         3. Courage

         4. Justice

       • God=universal mind and connected to the cosmos/nature

         • limited power to the physical world but sets up the Earth to best benefit people

         • independent from sin/evil/can’t control

14. Aristotelian Ethics

    • Virtue is necessary for Eudaemonia but not sufficient

    • You must have the essentials, being shelter, health, friendship, and wisdom

II. Understanding Argumentation

• Definition of Argumentation

  • Process of reasoning and presenting claims

  • Importance in persuasive writing and speaking

• Elements of Argumentation

  • Claim: The main point or thesis

  • Evidence: Supporting data and examples

  • Warrant: Explanation of how evidence supports the claim

  • Counterargument: Addressing opposing views

• Types of Arguments

  • Deductive vs. Inductive reasoning

    • Inductive

      • a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general

    • Deductive

      • Drawing conclusions from a general idea then reaching a conclusion by applying it to a specific case

  • Emotional (pathos), ethical (ethos), and logical (logos) appeals

III. Philosophers and Their Beliefs

• Socrates (470-399 BC)

  • Method: Socratic questioning

  • Belief: "The unexamined life is not worth living"

  • Socratic Paradox

    • I know one thing; that I know nothing

• Plato (427-347 BC)

  • Theory of Forms: Ideal forms vs. physical reality

  • Belief: Knowledge is recollection

    • Dualism: body and soul are separate

    • Forms: true reality is comprised of abstract, ideal entities (Forms) which differ from how things appear.

      • Think about the Allegory of the Cave

      • Rejected by Aristotle

  • Background

    • Socrates’ student

    • The Republic

      • Plato’s Utopia

        1. *Aristocracy - Plato’s ideal governance structure with kings that are philosophers and act for the benefit of their citizens

        2. Timocracy- a form of government in which rulers are motivated by ambition or love of honor. A ruler must own property.

           1. honor and military success are valued above all

        3. Oligarchy - Governance in which the rulers are the wealthy

        4. Democracy - Governance in which the whole population or all the eligible members of a state are represented and rule, typically through elected representatives

        5. Tyranny - man will eventually corrupt and become tyrannical

      • 3 Classes of people

        1. producers (craftsmen and farmers),

        2. auxiliaries (warriors)

        3. guardians (rulers)

    • Founder of the academy

• Aristotle (384-322 BC)

  • Empiricism: Knowledge through experience

  • Belief: Virtue ethics; the Golden Mean

    • Believed in a deity/power

    • Prior Analytics - syllogistic reasoning

    • Syllogism

      • Deductive Reasoning

  • Background

    • Tutored Alexander the Great

    • Founder of the Lyceum (academy)

• Euclid

  • Euclid’s Elements

    • a collection of definitions, postulates, propositions, and mathematical proofs of the propositions

    • Geometry

• Alexander the Great

  • Carried aspects of classical reasoning

  • Spread Greek philosophy to the Mediterranean and Hellenistic period

    • Inspires the early christian church

• Epicurus

  • attaining a happy tranquil life defined by self-sufficiency and being surrounded by friends

  • Epicureanism - overcoming superstition and belief in gods/divine intervention

    • Controlling desires, understanding nature leads to peace

• Diogenes of Sinope

  • Athens

  • Led a simple lifestyle

  • Mentored by Antisthenes, who was a mentee of Socrates

  • Cynicism

    • True happiness lies in right and intelligent living

    • Master desires and wants, pairing life down to the essentials

• Pyrrho

  • Pyrrhonism/skepticism

    • rejects dogma and advocates the suspension of judgement over the truth of all beliefs

      • one withholds judgments, particularly on the drawing of moral or ethical conclusions

    • Dogma- a principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.

• Arcesilaus

  • Founded academic skepticism

    • Knowledge is impossible but because degrees of probability exist, thinkers can act and not be stuck in a loop

• WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DOGMATISM, PHRRHONISM, AND ACADEMIC SKEPTICISM

  • Dogmatists claim to have knowledge, Academic skeptics claim that knowledge is impossible, while Pyrrhonists assent to neither proposition, suspending judgment on both.

Greek Timeline (BG)

• Trojan war

• Homer

• Sophocles

  • Believed in fate and the will of the gods, as well as the importance of selflessness and morality.

  • Reflected in his tragedies

• Socrates

• Plato