Chapter 1-4

Organ systems of the body

• Integumentary system

• Skeletal system

• Muscular system

• Respiratory system

• Cardiovascular system

• Lymphatic system

• Endocrine system

• Digestive system

• Nervous system

• Urinary system

• Male & Female reproductive system

Organ Systems Interrelationships

• Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by the blood

• Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems  
  

Necessary Life Functions I

• Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct from the external 

  • Cellular level 

  • Organismal level

• Movement – locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), and contractility 

• Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them

Digestion – breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
Necessary Life Functions II

• Metabolism – all the chemical reactions that occur in the body

• Excretion – removal of wastes from the body

• Reproduction – cellular and organismal levels

  • Cellular 

  • Organismal

• Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the organism
  Survival Needs

  • Nutrients

  • Oxygen

  • Water

  • Maintaining normal body temperature and pH

  • Atmospheric pressure

    Homeostasis

    • The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium

    • Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis
      Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
      1. stimulus: produces change in variable

    • 2. change detected by receptor

    • 3. input: information sent along afferent pathway to

    • 4. output: information sent along efferent pathway to

    • 5. response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis

      negative feedback- doing the opposite from what the body is doing

      positive feedback- In positive feedback systems, the output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

      Regional Terms: Anterior View

      • Axial – head, neck, and trunk

      • Appendicular – appendages or limbs

      • Specific regional terminology
        Body Planes

        Sagittal – divides the body into right and left parts

        Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

        • Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts
          Body Cavities

        • Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system

          • Cranial cavity

          • Vertebral cavity

        • Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera)

          • Thoracic 

          • Abdominopelvic

            Body Cavities

            • Thoracic cavity is subdivided into:

            1. Pleural cavities

            2. Mediastinum

            3. Pericardial cavity
               

• The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped diaphragm

• It is composed of two subdivisions

  1. Abdominal cavity

  2. Pelvic cavity

Other Body Cavities

• Oral and digestive

• Nasal

• Orbital

• Middle ear

• Synovial
  Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

  • Parietal

  • Visceral

  Serous fluid separates the serosae
  Energy-

• kinetic- energy in action

• potential- energy of position; stored (inactive) energy

  forms of energy-

• chemical energy- stored in bonds of chemical substances (atp)

• mechanical- directly involved in moving matter

• electrical- results from the movement of charged particles

• radiant or electromagnetic- energy traveling in waves

composition of matter-

elements- unique substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means

atoma- more-or-less identical building blocks for each element

atomic symbol- one or two-letter chemical shorthand for each element

4 major elements of the body (96%) -

1. oxygen (O)

2. carbon (C)

3. hydrogen (H)

4. nitrogen (N)

the nucleus consists of- neutrons and protons

orbiting the nucleus are electrons

atomic number- equal to the number of protons (cannot change)

mass number- equal to the mass of the protons and neutrons

atomic weight- average of the mass numbers of all isotopes

isotopes- atoms with same number of protons but a different number of neutrons

radioisotopes- atoms that undergo spontaneous decay called radioactivity

compound- two or more different kinds of atoms chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion

molecule- smallest unit of a compound that still retains the properties of the compound

mixtures- two or more components physically intermixed (not chemically bonded)

solution- homogeneous mixtures of components

-solvent- a substance present in greatest amount

-solute- substance(s) present in smaller amounts

colloids, or emulsions- heterogeneous mixtures whose solutes do not settle out, do not mix at all

suspensions- heterogenous mixtures with visable solutes that tend to sttlke

mixtures compared with compounds-

no chemical bonding takes place in mixtures

most mixtures can be separated by physical means

mixtures can be heterogeneous or homogeneous

chemical bonds-

electron shells, or energy levels, surround the nucleus of an atom

bonds are formed using the electrons in the outermost energy level

valence shell- outermost energy level

octet rule- except for the first shell which is full with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner to have eight electrons in their valence shell

inert elements have their outermost energy fully occupied by electrons- it will not react with any other atoms

chemically reactive elements do not have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons

chemical bonds- ionic, covalent and hydrogen bonds

ionic bonds- form between atoms (ions) by the transfer of one or more electrons

ions are charged atoms resulting from the gain or loss of electrons

anions (-) have gained an electron

cations (+) have lost one or more electrons

covalent bonds- formed by sharing of two or more electrons

electron sharing produces molecules

polar and nonpolar molecules

electrons shared equally between atoms produce nonpolar molecules

unequal sharing of electrons produces polar molecules

atoms with six or seven valence shell electrons are electronegative

atoms with one or two valence shell electrons are electropositive

hydrogen bonds-

too weak to bind atoms together

common in dipoles such as water

responsible for surface tension in water

important as intramolecular bonds, giving the molecule a three-dimensional shape

• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life

  • Organismal activity depends on individual and collective activity of cells

  • Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by subcellular structure

  • Continuity of life has a cellular basis

Cell Theory
A. Cell is the Basic structural and functional unit of life
II. Cell Parts
A. Plasma/Cell membrane
1. Separates inside from outside of cells
2. Plays a role in cellular activity
B. Structure of Cell Membrane
1. Fluid Mosaic Model
a. Phospholipid Bilayer with many other parts embedded in it
2. Phospholipid Bilayer
a. Hydrophobic (non-polar) tails
b. Hydrophilic (polar) heads
3. Other parts
a. Glycolipids
b. Glycoproteins
c. Cholesterol
i. About 20% of membrane lipids
ii. Help strengthen cell membrane
d. Membrane Protein Functions
i. Transport
ii. Enzyme activity
iii. Receptors
iv. Cell adhesion
v. Cell-cell recognition
vi. Attachment point for cytoskeleton
III. Nucleus
A. Contains the Genetic Library (DNA)
B. Site of Protein production
C. Parts
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Nucleoli
a. Site of Ribosome production
3. Chromatin
a. Consists of:
i. DNA and Histones
IV. Cytoplasm
A. Includes Cytosol, Organelles, and Inclusions
B. Organelles
1. Membrane Bound
a. Ribosomes
i. Site of protein production
ii. Free and membrane bound ribosomes
b. Rough ER
i. Continuous with Nuclear envelope
ii. Contains Ribosomes

Smooth ER
i. Lipid and cholesterol metabolism
ii. Synthesis of steroid based hormones
iii. Synthesis, absorption and transport of Fats
d. Golgi Apparatus/Body
i. Functions in modification, concentration and packaging of proteins
ii. Lysosome production
e. Lysosome
i. Contains digestive enzyme
ii. Helps in digestion and breakdown
f. Peroxisome
i. Aids in detoxification
g. Mitochondria
i. “Powerhouse of Cell”
ii. Provides most of the ATP during aerobic respiration
iii. Contains their own DNA and RNA
2. Non-membrane bound organelles
a. Cytoskeleton
i. Protein rods
a) Microtubules
b) Intermediate filaments
c) Microfilaments
b. Centrioles
i. Organize mitotic spindle
ii. Form the bases of cilia and flagella
c. Cilia and Flagella
i. Cilia
a) Numerous
b) Short
c) Aids in movement
ii. Flagella
a) Long and whip like
b) Only found on sperm
V. DNA Replication
A. Enzymes
1. Helicase – unwinds the DNA and exposes the individual strands
2. RNA Primase – provides an RNA primer needed to start replication
3. DNA polymerase III – copies the DNA
a. Only works in the 5’ to 3’ direction
b. There is a
i. Continuous/Leading Strand
ii. Lagging Strand
a) Contains Okazaki fragments
4. DNA ligase – connects/ligates Okazaki fragments
5. DNA polymerase II – proofreads/spell checks the DNA replication
6. DNA polymerase I – removes the RNA primer
B. DNA replication is Semiconservative

Protein Synthesis
A. Occurs in 2 Stages – Transcription and Translation
B. Transcription
1. Production of single strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) from single strand of DNA
2. Process required to get DNA blueprint for protein synthesis from the nucleus out to the
cytosol
3. 3 Steps
a. Two DNA strands separate, and RNA polymerase binds to promoter gene
b. New mRNA strand is formed using complementary RNA nucleotides
i. Sequence of three nitrogenous bases in RNA represents a codon
(complementary to DNA triplet)
c. At DNA “stop” signal, RNA polymerase and mRNA detach, and the original DNA
strands reattach
C. mRNA processing
1. Occurs in Nucleus
2. Spliceosomes remove introns (non-coding region) and splice together Exons (Coding
regions)
D. Translation
1. Three phases of translation
a. Initiation, Elongation and Termination
2. Start codons is AUG- codes for Methionine
3. Three stop codons – UAG, UGA, UAA
VII. Simple Diffusion
A. Passive
B. High to a low concentration (With the concentration gradient)
C. Is affected by the concentration gradient (This is the difference the two sides of the membrane)
VIII. Facilitated diffusion
A. Passive
B. Requires carrier/transport proteins
C. Moves with the concentration gradient
D. Is affected by the concentration gradient
E. Is affected by the number of carrier proteins
F. Exhibits a transport maximum
IX. Osmosis
A. Passive
B. Water moves from a high concentration to a low concentration
C. Water can move from a low solute concentration to a high concentration
D. Water can move from a hypotonic to a hypertonic solution
X. Active Transport
A. Active – requires energy
B. Solutes moves from a low concentration to a high concentration (Against the concentration
gradient)

Tissues
A. Groups of cells similar in structure and function
B. The four types of tissues
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
C. Epithelial
1. Simple
a. Squamous
i. Function: diffusion and filtration
ii. Location: Kidneys, Lungs, Lining heart and blood vessels
b. Cuboidal
i. Function: Secretion and Absorption
ii. Location: Ducts of glands and ovary surface
c. Columnar
i. Function: Absorption and secretion and movement (ciliated)
ii. Location: Digestive tract, (uterine tubes and bronchi (ciliated))
2. Stratified
a. Squamous
i. Function: Protection
ii. Location: esophagus, mouth, vagina and skin
b. Cuboidal
i. Function: Secretion
ii. Location: ducts of sweat and mammary glands
c. Columnar
i. Function: Secretion and seal
ii. Location: Pharynx, and male urethra
3. Pseudostratified columnar
a. Function: Secretion of mucus and movement (ciliated)
b. Location: Large glands and trachea (ciliated)
4. Transitional
a. Function: Distension
b. Location: Urinary bladder, ureters and heart
5. Glandular
a. Endocrine - secrete products into bloodstream (no ducts)
b. Exocrine – secrete products onto surface or into lumen via ducts
i. Merocrine – most common
a) Sweat (Sudiferous), salivary and pancreatic glands
ii. Holocrine
a) Sebaceous (oil)
iii. Apocrine
a) Mammary

Connective Tissue Proper
1. Loose
a. Areolar
i. Function: cushion and inflammation
ii. Location: under skin, around organs and capillaries
b. Adipose
i. Function: energy reserve, insulation, cushion
ii. Location: under skin, around kidneys, in abdomen and breasts
c. Reticular
i. Function: forms an internal skeleton (Stroma) for cells
ii. Location: lymph organs
E. Dense
1. Regular
a. Function/Location:
b. Ligaments (bone to bone)
c. Tendons (bone to muscle)
d. Aponeurosis
2. Irregular
a. Function: Structural support and strength
b. Location: Dermis of skin, fibrous capsules of joints
F. Cartilage
1. Hyaline
a. Function: Support and reinforcement, cushion
b. Location: embryonic skeleton, ends of long bones, nose
2. Elastic
a. Function: flexibility
b. Location: external ear and epiglottis
3. Fibrocartilage
a. Function: Strength and ability to absorb shock
b. Location: intervetebral discs and knee joint
G. Bone
1. Function: support and protection; storage of minerals and production of RBC
2. Location: Bones
H. Blood
1. Function: transport of respiratory gases, nutrients and wastes and immune response
2. Types of cells
a. Red Blood Cells
b. White Blood Cells
c. Platelets
I. Nervous
1. Function: Transmits electrical signals from sensory receptors to effectors
2. Location: Found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves
3. Neurons – generate and conduct electrical impulses
a. Cell Body Dendrites Axons

Muscle
1. Skeletal
a. Long, cylindrical fibers
b. Striated
c. Multinucleated
d. Voluntary control
e. Attached to bones
2. Cardiac
a. Short, branching cells
b. Striated
c. Intercalated disc
d. Involuntary control
e. Heart wall
3. Smooth
a. Short fusiform cells
b. One nucleus
c. Nonstriated
d. Involuntary
e. Walls of internal organs, blood vessels