Handouts-PSY512

Page 1: Gender Differences in Personality

Introduction to Gender and Personality

• Key Findings: Men and women differ in various personality dimensions, but differences vary across traits with some traits typically being higher in one gender over the other.

• Stereotypical Traits: Common beliefs may not hold; for instance, men score higher in traits stereotyped as female, such as talkativeness.

• Research Findings: Studies suggest inconclusive evidence about significant psychological differences between genders, viewing men and women as relatively similar psychologically (Huston, 1985; Hyde, 1984, 1986; Maccoby, 1990).

Gender and Aggression

• Physical Aggression: Strong evidence indicates that males exhibit higher levels of aggression than females from an early age, which persists throughout life.

• Female Reactions to Aggression: Women tend to feel more guilt and anxiety over aggressive behaviors and are more concerned about the impact on victims (Feingold, 1994; Hyde, 1994).

• Relational Aggression: More common in females, this involves causing emotional harm rather than physical harm. It includes behaviors like snubbing or social rejection (Galen & Underwood, 1997; Crick et al., 1997).

• Overall Aggression Trends: Males exhibit higher physical aggression than females; however, both exhibit similar levels of verbal aggression in most cases.

Theories of Aggression

Biological Explanation

• Argues that hormonal differences contribute to higher male aggression levels (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1980).

Social Learning Explanation

• Suggests learning and socialization processes shape aggression rather than innate biological factors.

Gender Differences in Bullying

• Male vs. Female Bullying: Boys often face bullying from other boys, while girls report experiencing sexual teasing, which can seriously affect their desire to attend school (American Association of University Women Foundation, 1993).

Non-Verbal Communication and Behaviors

• Sensitivity to Cues: Women tend to be more sensitive to non-verbal signals compared to men (Hall, 1990).

• Posture Differences: Men display more relaxed postures, while women exhibit more formal and tense postures (Henley, 1977).

• Gaze: Women are more likely to maintain eye contact while conversing, whereas men tend to gaze less.

Page 2: Gender Differences in Communication

Communication Styles

• Talkativeness: Contrary to stereotypes, studies suggest men may be more inclined to talkative behaviors and interruptions (Key, 1975).

Self-Disclosure

• Self-Disclosure Patterns: Women engage in more self-disclosure than men, particularly concerning emotions and relationships (Cozby, 1973; Shafer et al., 1996).

• Contextual Influences: Men disclose more in contexts where they foresee future interaction with women, often seeking intimacy.

Gender Differences in Non-Verbal Communication

• Decoding Skills: Women demonstrate superior skills in interpreting non-verbal cues compared to men (Eagly, 1987; Hall, 1978).

Expressiveness and Sensitivity

• Emotional Sensitivity: Women are generally better at recognizing and responding to others' emotional states, except for cases of anger (Brown, 1986).

Page 3: Communication Style Continued

Gender Differences in Communication Style

• Women’s Communication: Women use more tentative language patterns, which may affect perceptions of assertiveness and competence (Martin, 1987; Carli, 1990).

• Men’s Communication: Men tend to speak more assertively and are less likely to add qualifiers to their statements.

Reciprocity in Self-Disclosure

• Mutual Disclosure Patterns: Studies indicate that both genders tend to reciprocate disclosures in friendships (Cozby, 1973).

• Focus of Conversations: Differences emerge in topics discussed; women focus on personal matters while men cover impersonal topics like politics or current events.

Page 4: Gender, Affiliation, and Friendship

Friendship Dynamics

• Social Networks: Gender differences exist in the composition of social networks; men include more women in theirs, while women typically maintain emotional exchanges with fewer friends.

• Verbal Communication in Friendships: Female friendships rely heavily on verbal communication while male friendships are often activity-focused (Hays, 1985).

Gender and Altruism

• Altruistic Behavior: Altruism is defined as behavior that helps others at a personal cost (Deaux et al., 1993; Feldman, 2002).

• Women’s Willingness to Help: More women report a willingness to help, particularly in emotional support roles (Brody, 1990; Eagly & Crowley, 1986).

Page 5: Gender and Self Esteem

Self-Confidence and Self-Esteem

• Task-Related Self-Confidence: Women show hesitation in new tasks associated with traditionally male roles (Beyer, 1990; Lenney, 1977).

• Self-Esteem Trends: Men generally report higher self-esteem due to different evaluative criteria based on personal characteristics (Feingold, 1994; King et al., 1999).

Positive Self-Assessment Trends

• Self-Perception Patterns: Men tend to rate themselves higher than women in various self-assessment surveys, indicating a disparity in self-evaluation (Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee, 1994; Orenstein, 2001).

Page 6: Cognitive Differences

Gender and Intelligence

• Common Misconceptions: The belief in significant differences in intellectual capabilities between men and women lacks substantial empirical support.

• Performance Trends: Although some differences exist, particularly in specific fields like mathematics and verbal skills, they are often minimal and declining over time (Hedges & Nowell, 1995).

Gender Differences in I.Q

• I.Q Findings: Differences in I.Q scores, while noted, are small and declining; women excel in verbal tasks while men show stronger performance in spatial reasoning (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974).

Page 7: Gender and Cognitive Skills

Gender Differences in Academic Performance

• Elementary and Middle School Trends: Studies show slight advantages for females in computational skills at lower grades, while males outperform in high school math problem solving.

• Social Learning Impact: The perception of math as a male-dominated field leads to dwindling interest among females (Nosek et al., 2002).

Gender and Verbal Abilities

• Verbal Skills Trends: Across age groups, females show superior verbal skills, speaking earlier and performing better in language-related tasks (Halpern, 1997).

Page 8: Gender and Media

Media Influence

• Role of Media in Socialization: Media serves as a potent socialization agent, influencing perspectives and attitudes through different portrayals of genders.

• Cultural Representations: Historical portrayals have evolved, reflecting cultural shifts in perception toward body images and roles for both men and women.

Television and Stereotypes

• Television Representation Impact: Research indicates television influences attitudes towards sexism among adolescents, particularly girls (Morgan, 1982).

• Observational Learning: Children imitate behaviors seen on television, making media representation vital for shaping attitudes and behaviors.

Page 9: Media Portrayal of Gender

Print Media Impact

• Print Media Role: Newspapers, magazines, and advertisements contribute to shaping societal attitudes about gender roles, influencing women's perceptions of self-image.

• Body Image Issues: The portrayal of women in media can lead to unhealthy body image concerns and eating disorders (Peirce, 1990).

Cinema's Gender Representation

• Stereotypical Film Roles: Many films present exaggerated gender roles, affecting the perceptions and aspirations of young viewers.

• Notable Themes: Male characters often depicted as strong and capable, while female portrayals frequently lean towards dependency (Davis, 1990).

Page 10: Changing Trends in Media

Evolving Gender Portrayals

• New Trends in Media: With societal changes, portrayals of gender in media are slowly becoming more realistic.

• Representation of Professionals: Although positive changes are observed, traditional stereotypes still dominate many media narratives (Coltrane & Adams, 1997).

Page 11: Gender and Emotion

Emotional Responses

• Perception of Emotions: Gender stereotypes suggest women are more emotional and men more rational, but empirical research shows both genders experience similar emotions.

• Cultural Influences on Emotion: Societal expectations guide emotional expression, with females encouraged to display emotions while males are taught to suppress them.

Page 12: Emotion and Gender

Emotional Experience vs. Expression

• Cultural Expectations: The expression of emotions varies, with upbringing influencing emotional responses and how emotions are processed.

• Recognition of Emotional States: Women tend to accurately assess emotional responses, both in themselves and others, more effectively than men.

Page 13: Gender and Motivation

Gender Differences in Motivational Factors

• Aggression and Emotional States: Gender differences exist in expressing aggression; men display more physical aggression while women engage in relational aggression.

• Motivational Needs across Genders: Both genders have intrinsic needs for affiliation and connection.

Page 14: Gender and Education

Educational Access and Quality

• Gender Disparities in Education: Cultural and societal barriers significantly impede women's access to education, affecting long-term outcomes.

• Impact of Education on Empowerment: Education empowers women and is crucial for the better health and socioeconomic status of future generations.

Barriers to Women's Education

• Cultural Expectations: Many cultures prioritize boy's education; girls are often relegated to household roles and early marriages further inhibit educational opportunities.

Page 15: Gender Issues in Work

Workforce Participation

• Women's Role in the Workforce: Despite challenges, women have increasingly entered various professional fields.

• Employment Barriers: Gendered expectations and systemic barriers limit women's progression in their careers, often resulting in the glass ceiling effect.

Page 16: Women’s Empowerment

Concept of Empowerment

• Empowerment Defined: Economic, social, legal, and psychological dimensions define women's empowerment.

• Support Systems: Encouraging women to take initiative and empowering them through education is essential for equitable participation in society.

Page 17: Gender and Health

Women's Health Needs

• Focus on Women’s Specific Health Issues: Women face unique health risks tied to reproductive processes and societal expectations.

• Health Awareness: Increasing awareness of health-related behaviors can improve women's health outcomes and promote a healthier lifestyle.

Page 18: Health and Menopause

Impact of Menopause

• Menopausal Experience: Variability in menopausal symptoms signifies the complex interplay of biological and psychological factors.

• Support Needs During Menopause: Availability of emotional and psychological support is crucial to navigate changes associated with menopause.

Page 19: Obesity and Gender

Obesity Trends

• Gender Dimensions of Obesity: Societal pressures around body image disproportionately impact women, exacerbating issues of self-esteem and health.

• Managing Obesity: Focused interventions and lifestyle changes facilitate healthier approaches to weight management for both genders.

Page 20: Eating Disorders

Prevalence and Awareness

• Understanding Eating Disorders: Societal ideals of beauty often manifest in disordered eating patterns among women.

• Addressing Disorders: Awareness and health education can help support women dealing with eating disorders.

Page 21: Psychopathology

Gender Differences in Mental Health

• Stereotypes and Diagnosis: Diagnostic biases influence perceptions of mental disorders; conditions viewed differently depending on gender expectations.

• Changing Perspectives: Increasing understanding of gender in psychopathology allows for more equitable treatment approaches.

Page 22: Psychotherapy Trends

Feminist Therapy Approach

• Therapeutic Paradigm: Feminist therapy principles create space for societal context and individual experiences as part of treatment.

• Empowerment Goals: Therapy aims to promote self-efficacy, enhance awareness of gendered experiences, and cultivate a supportive therapeutic relationship.

Page 23: Summary and Future Directions

Course Reflection

• Understanding of Gender Issues: Insight into key themes of gender roles, impacts of education and media, and health perspectives enhances awareness.

• Research Opportunities: Continued exploration of gender identity, perception, empowerment, and societal influences is vital for future psychology research.

Gender Differences in Personality

Introduction to Gender and Personality

• Key Findings: Research highlights that men and women exhibit differences in various personality dimensions. However, the extent and nature of these differences vary significantly across different traits, and some traits that are often stereotypically associated with one gender may be higher in the other.

• Stereotypical Traits: Contrary to popular beliefs, empirical evidence suggests that men may score higher in traits traditionally seen as feminine, such as talkativeness and emotional expression. This challenges the binary view of gendered personality traits.

• Research Findings: Multiple studies have explored these differences and suggest relatively inconclusive evidence about significant psychological variations between genders. Notably, researchers such as Huston (1985), Hyde (1984, 1986), and Maccoby (1990) have posited that both men and women are fundamentally similar in many psychological respects, thereby advocating for a more nuanced understanding of gender and personality.

Gender and Aggression

• Physical Aggression: There is robust evidence demonstrating that males tend to exhibit higher levels of physical aggression than females beginning from an early age, and this trend tends to persist throughout their lives. This raises questions about the socialization and biological factors that may contribute to these patterns.

• Female Reactions to Aggression: Research indicates that women often experience feelings of guilt and anxiety in response to aggressive behaviors, highlighting a difference in emotional responses. They are typically more concerned about the emotional and psychological ramifications of their actions on victims (Feingold, 1994; Hyde, 1994).

• Relational Aggression: More prevalent among females, relational aggression encompasses behaviors intended to cause emotional harm instead of physical damage. Examples include social exclusion, gossip, or emotional manipulation (Galen & Underwood, 1997; Crick et al., 1997). This type of aggression is significant in understanding female interpersonal dynamics and challenges the notion that aggression is solely a male trait.

• Overall Aggression Trends: While males show elevated levels of physical aggression, both genders appear to exhibit similar intensities of verbal aggression in many scenarios, suggesting the complexity of aggression across genders.

Theories of Aggression

• Biological Explanation: This perspective contends that inherent hormonal differences, particularly testosterone levels, contribute to the higher prevalence of aggression among males (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1980).

• Social Learning Explanation: Contrastingly, the social learning theory posits that aggression is largely shaped by environmental learning experiences and socialization rather than being strictly biological. It emphasizes the influence of societal norms, role models, and reinforcement in developing aggressive behaviors.

Gender Differences in Bullying

• Male vs. Female Bullying: The dynamics of bullying vary by gender; boys predominantly experience bullying from other boys often involving physical confrontations. In contrast, girls frequently report incidents of sexual teasing and relational aggression, which can adversely impact their school attendance and overall psychological well-being (American Association of University Women Foundation, 1993).

Non-Verbal Communication and Behaviors

• Sensitivity to Cues: Women are frequently found to be more attuned to non-verbal signals, such as body language and facial expressions, compared to men (Hall, 1990). This heightened sensitivity plays a crucial role in interpersonal communication and relationship dynamics.

• Posture Differences: Observational studies reveal that men typically adopt more relaxed postures, while women exhibit more formal and tension-filled postures in social settings (Henley, 1977). This difference in posture can convey varying levels of confidence and approachability in interactions.

• Gaze: Research suggests that women maintain eye contact more consistently during conversations, which can enhance connection and engagement, while men are noted to gaze less, potentially impacting perceptions of attentiveness and interest.

Researchers and Research Findings on Gender Differences in Personality

• Huston (1985): Suggested men and women are fundamentally similar psychologically, advocating for a nuanced understanding of gender and personality.

• Hyde (1984, 1986): Found relatively inconclusive evidence about significant psychological differences between genders, highlighting similarities instead.

• Maccoby (1990): Emphasized the need for recognizing fundamental similarities in psychological traits across genders.

• Feingold (1994): Discussed women's emotional responses, particularly feelings of guilt and anxiety in relation to aggression.

• Galen & Underwood (1997); Crick et al. (1997): Identified relational aggression as more prevalent among females, presenting a challenge to traditional views on aggression being solely a male characteristic.

• Maccoby & Jacklin (1980): Provided a biological explanation for aggression, attributing higher levels in males to hormonal differences.

• American Association of University Women Foundation (1993): Reported on the unique bullying experiences of boys and girls, emphasizing the psychological impact of gendered bullying behaviors.

• Hall (1990): Conducted studies demonstrating women's superior sensitivity to non-verbal cues compared to men.

• Henley (1977): Found differences in body posture between genders, with men adopting more relaxed postures and women showing more tension in their body language.