AP Psychology Topic 2.2 - Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making

EQ: How do psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making?

I. Concepts and Prototypes

Critical Thinking - The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment, requiring open-mindedness and the consideration of alternative viewpoints.
Forming and Modifying Schemas - The cognitive frameworks that help us organize and interpret information, allowing us to categorize experiences and make predictions about future events.
Executive Functions - The mental processes that enable us to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and juggle multiple tasks successfully.

II. Solving Problems

Trial and Error - A problem-solving strategy that involves trying various solutions until one works, allowing individuals to learn from mistakes and gradually refine their approach.
Algorithms - A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem, often used in mathematical calculations and systematic decision-making.
Heuristics - Simple, efficient rules or mental shortcuts that help people make decisions and solve problems quickly, often based on previous experiences and common sense.
Problems in Problem Solving - These can arise due to cognitive biases, insufficient information, or a lack of relevant experience, making it difficult for individuals to identify effective solutions.

III. Making Decisions

Mental Set - a tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has worked in the past, which can hinder the ability to see alternative solutions.
The Influence of Circumstances - Situational factors can significantly affect decision-making processes, as individuals may be swayed by the context or environment in which they find themselves, leading to variations in their choices.
Other Cognitive Biases - Cognitive shortcuts or patterns of thinking that can lead to systematic deviations from rational decision-making.

IV. Creativity - The ability to generate innovative ideas or solutions by thinking outside conventional boundaries, often leading to more effective problem-solving and unique approaches.

V. Key Terms

Accommodation - Changing your existing ideas to fit new information.
Algorithm - A step-by-step method that always gives the right answer if followed correctly.
Assimilation - Adding new information into what you already know, even if it's not a perfect fit.
Availability Heuristic - Judging how likely something is based on how easily you can think of examples.
Concept - A mental category or group of similar things (like "fruits" or "tools").
Convergent Thinking - Thinking that focuses on finding one correct answer.
Creativity - Coming up with new, original, and useful ideas.
Critical Thinking - Carefully analyzing and evaluating information instead of just accepting it.
Decision-Making - Choosing between options using thinking, judgment, or preference.
Divergent Thinking - Thinking that explores many possible solutions or ideas.
Executive Functions - Mental skills that help with planning, staying focused, and managing tasks.
Framing - How information is presented affects how you understand or react to it.
Functional Fixedness - Only seeing an object for its usual purpose, not other possible uses.
Gambler’s Fallacy - Believing that past random events affect future ones (like thinking a coin is “due” for heads).
Heuristics - Simple rules or shortcuts your brain uses to make quick decisions.
Mental Set - Sticking with the same solution that worked before, even if it doesn't work now.
Priming - When exposure to one thing influences how you respond to something else, often without realizing it.
Problem-Solving - Finding a way to reach a goal or fix an issue.
Prototype - The best or most typical example of a category in your mind.
Representativeness Heuristic - Judging something based on how much it matches a stereotype.
Schema - A mental framework that helps organize and interpret information.
Sunk-Cost Fallacy - Sticking with something just because you’ve already invested time or money, even if it’s not worth it.