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psychology exam 3/13/25

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Phineas Gage – Significance of His Case (Essay Question)

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury when a metal rod penetrated his skull, damaging his frontal lobe. His case is significant because:

  • It provided early evidence of the role of the frontal lobe in personality, decision-making, and impulse control.

  • His drastic personality changes after the accident suggested a connection between brain structure and behavior.

  • His case contributed to the field of neuroscience and our understanding of brain function.

Nature vs. Nurture

  • Nature: The idea that genetics and biological factors determine behavior and personality.

  • Nurture: The belief that environment, upbringing, and experiences shape an individual.

  • Modern psychology considers both factors in explaining behavior.

Structuralism and Introspection

  • Structuralism (founded by Wundt & Titchener): Focuses on breaking down mental processes into basic components.

  • Introspection: A method where individuals analyze their own thoughts and feelings to understand the conscious mind.

Functionalism and Evolution’s Impact on Mental Processes

  • Functionalism (William James): Focuses on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

  • Evolution impacts mental processes by shaping behaviors that enhance survival and reproduction.

Behaviorism

  • Focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental states.

  • Key figures: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.

  • Emphasizes learning through reinforcement and punishment.

Humanistic Psychology & Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

  • Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

    1. Physiological Needs

    2. Safety Needs

    3. Love and Belonging

    4. Esteem Needs

    5. Self-Actualization (achieving full potential)

Biopsychosocial Approach

  • Explains behavior through biological, psychological, and social influences.

Sociocultural Approach

  • Examines how culture and social environment influence behavior.

Freud & The Psychoanalytic Approach (Essay Question)

  • Focuses on the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts as key drivers of behavior.

Id, Ego, Superego

  • Id – Instinctual desires (pleasure principle).

  • Ego – Balances the id and superego (reality principle).

  • Superego – Moral conscience.

Psychosexual Stages & Fixation

  1. Oral Stage – Focus on sucking/eating (fixation: smoking, nail-biting).

  2. Anal Stage – Toilet training (fixation: excessive orderliness or messiness).

  3. Phallic Stage – Gender identity development (Oedipus/Electra complex).

Defense Mechanisms (Example)

  • Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts into the unconscious.

Experimental Psychology – Example of a Current Research Topic

  • Studying the impact of social media on adolescent mental health.

Correlation ≠ Causation (Essay Question)

  • Just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.

  • Example: Ice cream sales and drowning rates increase together, but warm weather is the real cause.

Purdue Pharma – Why They Are Infamous

  • They aggressively marketed OxyContin, leading to the opioid crisis by downplaying addiction risks.

Milgram Experiment (Essay Question)

  • Studied obedience to authority.

  • Participants were instructed to administer what they thought were electric shocks to another person.

  • Showed how people obey authority figures even when harming others.

Placebo Effect

  • When a person experiences a real improvement in symptoms due to believing they are receiving treatment, even if it's inactive.

Biopsychology

  • ECT (Electroconvulsive Therapy) – Used for severe depression.

  • Psychopharmacology – Study of how drugs affect mental processes.

  • Biochemistry – Role of neurotransmitters in behavior.

  • Assumption: Mental and physical illnesses have physical causes.

Psychosurgery Example

  • Lobotomy – Severing brain connections to alter behavior.

Psychedelics in Therapy

  • Being used to treat PTSD, depression, and addiction (e.g., psilocybin, MDMA).

Difference Between Psychopharmacology, Neuropsychology, & Psychophysiology (Essay Question)

  • Psychopharmacology: Study of drug effects on mental health.

  • Neuropsychology: Focuses on brain-behavior relationships.

  • Psychophysiology: Examines the physiological basis of psychological processes.

1 Pro & 1 Criticism of the Biological Approach

  • Pro: Provides scientific explanations for mental disorders.

  • Criticism: Overlooks environmental and social influences.

Developmental Psychology

Critical Periods

  • Timeframes where specific experiences are necessary for proper development.

Stability vs. Change

  • Debate over whether personality remains stable or changes over time.

Attachment Styles

  • Secure: Comforted by caregivers.

  • Avoidant: Distant and indifferent.

  • Anxious: Clingy and insecure.

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (Essay Question)

  • Studied attachment in baby monkeys.

  • Found that comfort (cloth mother) was more important than food (wire mother).

Piaget’s Contributions to Learning & Education

  • Developed stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).

Erikson’s Contributions

  • Social relationships are key at each stage of development.

  • Eight Psychosocial Stages (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion).

Kohlberg & Moral Development (Essay Question)

  • 6 Stages of Moral Development:

    1. Obedience/Punishment

    2. Self-Interest

    3. Conformity

    4. Law and Order

    5. Social Contract

    6. Universal Ethical Principles

The Heinz Dilemma

  • A moral dilemma about whether stealing medicine to save a life is justified.

Just-World Phenomenon

  • The belief that people get what they deserve.