psychology exam 3/13/25

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Phineas Gage – Significance of His Case (Essay Question)

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury when a metal rod penetrated his skull, damaging his frontal lobe. His case is significant because:

• It provided early evidence of the role of the frontal lobe in personality, decision-making, and impulse control.

• His drastic personality changes after the accident suggested a connection between brain structure and behavior.

• His case contributed to the field of neuroscience and our understanding of brain function.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature: The idea that genetics and biological factors determine behavior and personality.

• Nurture: The belief that environment, upbringing, and experiences shape an individual.

• Modern psychology considers both factors in explaining behavior.

Structuralism and Introspection

• Structuralism (founded by Wundt & Titchener): Focuses on breaking down mental processes into basic components.

• Introspection: A method where individuals analyze their own thoughts and feelings to understand the conscious mind.

Functionalism and Evolution’s Impact on Mental Processes

• Functionalism (William James): Focuses on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

• Evolution impacts mental processes by shaping behaviors that enhance survival and reproduction.

Behaviorism

• Focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental states.

• Key figures: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.

• Emphasizes learning through reinforcement and punishment.

Humanistic Psychology & Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

  1. Physiological Needs

  2. Safety Needs

  3. Love and Belonging

  4. Esteem Needs

  5. Self-Actualization (achieving full potential)

Biopsychosocial Approach

• Explains behavior through biological, psychological, and social influences.

Sociocultural Approach

• Examines how culture and social environment influence behavior.

Freud & The Psychoanalytic Approach (Essay Question)

• Focuses on the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts as key drivers of behavior.

Id, Ego, Superego

• Id – Instinctual desires (pleasure principle).

• Ego – Balances the id and superego (reality principle).

• Superego – Moral conscience.

Psychosexual Stages & Fixation

1. Oral Stage – Focus on sucking/eating (fixation: smoking, nail-biting).

2. Anal Stage – Toilet training (fixation: excessive orderliness or messiness).

3. Phallic Stage – Gender identity development (Oedipus/Electra complex).

Defense Mechanisms (Example)

• Repression: Pushing unwanted thoughts into the unconscious.

Experimental Psychology – Example of a Current Research Topic

• Studying the impact of social media on adolescent mental health.

Correlation ≠ Causation (Essay Question)

• Just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.

• Example: Ice cream sales and drowning rates increase together, but warm weather is the real cause.

Purdue Pharma – Why They Are Infamous

• They aggressively marketed OxyContin, leading to the opioid crisis by downplaying addiction risks.

Milgram Experiment (Essay Question)

• Studied obedience to authority.

• Participants were instructed to administer what they thought were electric shocks to another person.

• Showed how people obey authority figures even when harming others.

Placebo Effect

• When a person experiences a real improvement in symptoms due to believing they are receiving treatment, even if it's inactive.

Biopsychology

• ECT (Electroconvulsive Therapy) – Used for severe depression.

• Psychopharmacology – Study of how drugs affect mental processes.

• Biochemistry – Role of neurotransmitters in behavior.

• Assumption: Mental and physical illnesses have physical causes.

Psychosurgery Example

• Lobotomy – Severing brain connections to alter behavior.

Psychedelics in Therapy

• Being used to treat PTSD, depression, and addiction (e.g., psilocybin, MDMA).

Difference Between Psychopharmacology, Neuropsychology, & Psychophysiology (Essay Question)

• Psychopharmacology: Study of drug effects on mental health.

• Neuropsychology: Focuses on brain-behavior relationships.

• Psychophysiology: Examines the physiological basis of psychological processes.

1 Pro & 1 Criticism of the Biological Approach

• Pro: Provides scientific explanations for mental disorders.

• Criticism: Overlooks environmental and social influences.

Developmental Psychology

Critical Periods

• Timeframes where specific experiences are necessary for proper development.

Stability vs. Change

• Debate over whether personality remains stable or changes over time.

Attachment Styles

• Secure: Comforted by caregivers.

• Avoidant: Distant and indifferent.

• Anxious: Clingy and insecure.

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (Essay Question)

• Studied attachment in baby monkeys.

• Found that comfort (cloth mother) was more important than food (wire mother).

Piaget’s Contributions to Learning & Education

• Developed stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).

Erikson’s Contributions

• Social relationships are key at each stage of development.

• Eight Psychosocial Stages (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion).

Kohlberg & Moral Development (Essay Question)

• 6 Stages of Moral Development:

  1. Obedience/Punishment

  2. Self-Interest

  3. Conformity

  4. Law and Order

  5. Social Contract

  6. Universal Ethical Principles

The Heinz Dilemma

• A moral dilemma about whether stealing medicine to save a life is justified.

Just-World Phenomenon

• The belief that people get what they deserve.