PSCI Economics + Democratization Journey

A Comprehensive Study Guide on Democracy

1) Democracy as a Theory and Concept

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Robert Dahl's Idea of Democracy:

Inclusive Participation: All citizens should have the opportunity to engage in the political process.

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Effective Participation and Competition: Citizens actively engage in discussions and can influence decisions. Competition among political leaders and parties should ensure no single group monopolizes power.

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Polyarchy Model: Dahl's model where broad participation and competition are essential to a functioning democracy.

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Key Features of Democracy:

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Popular Sovereignty: The government's authority stems from the consent of the governed.

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Free and Fair Elections: Regular and transparent elections where citizens can choose their representatives.

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Political Participation: Citizens can participate in political processes like debates and holding office.

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Rule of Law: Everyone is equal under the law.

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Protection of Rights and Freedoms: Institutions uphold rights such as freedom of speech and assembly.

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Accountability and Transparency: Governments and institutions operate transparently and are accountable through oversight mechanisms.

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Democracy as a Symbol and Concept: Democracy is more than just a structure, it represents a set of ideals and values. It’s important to compare democracies to other regimes, especially those with negative connotations.

2) Comparing Democracy and Other Regimes

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Democracy vs. Authoritarianism:

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Democracy: Authority derives from the people, who can hold their leaders accountable.

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Authoritarianism: Power is concentrated in the hands of one leader or a small group with limited accountability. Control over media, restricted civil liberties, and manipulated elections are features of this regime.

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Example: Around 50% of people live under authoritarian regimes, highlighting that despite its merits, democracy isn't universally adopted.

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Democracy vs. Republic:

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The terms were historically used to reflect linguistic differences (Greek vs. Latin) rather than distinct forms of government.

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Modern usage often considers republics as a subset of democracies where power resides in the people and is exercised through elected representatives.

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Other Regimes: The sources also mention:

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Dictatorship: Rule by a single leader or a small group.

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Aristocracy: Rule by nobles or a privileged class.

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Theocracy: Rule by clergy or religious leaders.

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Minimal Requirements for Democracy:

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Representative Control: The government represents the people.

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Political Rights: Elections, political parties, and pluralism exist.

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Civil Liberties: Citizens can express themselves without fear of punishment.

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Modern Democracy vs. Classical Democracy:

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Modern Democracy: Representative and inclusive, granting all citizens voting rights. It requires party politics and competition.

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Classical Democracy: Direct democracy with limited rights and freedoms, excluding groups like women and slaves.

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Democracy in the Global North vs. Global South:

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Global North: Historically associated with economically developed countries and often former colonial powers.

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Global South: Includes countries that may face challenges to democratization due to historical factors and economic conditions.

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Note: A good economy doesn’t necessarily equate to democracy. China, despite being economically powerful, is in the Global South and doesn’t have a democratic system.

3) Democratization (Democratic Journeys)

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Phases of Democratization:

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Phase I: Transition to Democracy:

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Occurs gradually or through events like uprisings, revolutions, or invasions.

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Domestic and international factors influence its pace and type.

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Phase II: Consolidation of Democracy:

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Focuses on strengthening democratic institutions and practices.

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Challenges remain, as democratic breakdown is always a possibility.

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Obstacles to Democratization:

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Lack of State Capacity, Authority, and Legitimacy:

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Capacity: The government’s effectiveness in providing services.

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Authority: Ability to enforce laws and maintain order.

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Legitimacy: Public acceptance of the government’s right to rule.

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Cultural Obstacles: Some cultures may have values and beliefs that are hostile to democracy, like Confucianism and Islam.

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Confucianism: Emphasizes group harmony, authority over liberty, and lacks a tradition of rights against the state.

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Islam: Debate exists on its compatibility with democracy, but some interpretations emphasize obedience to religious authority.

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Economic Obstacles: Democratization is more likely in countries at a mid-level of economic development.

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Poverty can hinder democratic progress.

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Wealthy countries have often already democratized.

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Historical Obstacles:

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Absence of experience with democracy.

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Lack of commitment to democratic values among political leaders.

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Colonial legacies and external pressures.

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Huntington's Three Waves of Democracy:

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First Wave (1820s–1920s): Expansion of suffrage and parliamentary systems, primarily in Western countries.

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Second Wave (1945–1960s): Democratization in countries like Japan, India, and West Germany after WWII.

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Third Wave (1970s–present): Collapse of authoritarian regimes in Southern Europe, Latin America, and Eastern Europe.

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Driving Forces Behind Democratization:

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Internal Factors:

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Desire for collective decision-making and popular rule.

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Demand for legitimacy and effective state institutions.

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Active civil society.

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Economic development and urbanization.

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Rise of the middle class.

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Cultural and social changes.

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Political awareness and education.

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External Factors:

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International pressure and support for democratic governance.

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Influence of other democratic countries and organizations (e.g., the United States, the Commonwealth).

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Global waves of democratization.

4) Political Economy of Democracy

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Key Concepts:

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Political Economy of Democracy: Analyzes the relationship between economic and political systems.

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Market Capitalism: Characterized by autonomous markets with minimal state intervention. It’s argued that democracy mostly emerges in market capitalist economies. However, market capitalism can lead to inequality and can be harmful to democracy when economic interests dominate political decision-making.

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State-Based Economy: The state plays a larger role in the market, intervening to regulate economic activity.

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The Welfare State:

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Aims to provide social security, education, pensions, and healthcare as basic rights.

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Theories of Welfare:

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Cultural Theory: Welfare arises from shifting social norms.

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Modernist Theory: Welfare is a response to inequalities caused by capitalism.

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Political Action Theory: Welfare results from negotiations between social groups.

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International Learning Theory: Countries adopt welfare policies by learning from other countries' successes.

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Inequality and Democracy:

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Measures of Inequality: GDP and the GINI Coefficient, which measures wealth distribution.

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Sources of Poverty and Inequality: Race, gender, class, employment, and political affiliation.

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Debate: Does democracy benefit only the wealthy and middle class, or do the poor and marginalized also support it?

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Employment and Democracy:

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Employment impacts political stability and quality of life.

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Underemployment: Working below one's skill level or desired hours, potentially requiring state intervention.

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Unemployment: A challenge to democracy, potentially leading to dependence on welfare.

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Key Thinkers: Adam Smith and Karl Marx are mentioned as early thinkers who recognized the link between economy and politics.

5) Democracy in the Global South

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Unique Challenges:

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Historical legacies of colonialism.

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Economic underdevelopment and inequality.

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Political instability and conflict.

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Cultural diversity and potential conflicts.

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Theoretical Perspectives:

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Dependency Theory: Democracy in the Global South might be a tool for exploitation by the Global North.

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Postcolonialism: Democracy can be a new form of colonialism, highlighting the importance of domestic anti-colonial forces for development.

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Post-Development Theory: Democracy may be an ideology promoting the Global North's hegemony, emphasizing local knowledge and cultures.

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Other Theories: Modernization, institutionalism, neoliberalism, and democratic peace theories are also applied to the Global South.

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Practices and Considerations:

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Diversity of Experiences: Democracies in the Global South vary greatly due to different contexts.

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Civil Society: Plays a vital role in shaping democratic trajectories and state-society relations.

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Democracy Beyond Elections: Focus on broader aspects like social justice, participation, and redistribution of power.

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Innovative Sociological Perspectives: Comparative-historical analysis and fieldwork can provide insights into the lived experiences of democracy in the Global South.

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Forces Behind Democratization:

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Social Movements: Traditional and local organizations that advocate for civil rights and democratic freedoms.

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Case Studies: The sources offer examples of democratization processes in:

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Kenya: External democratization and the introduction of a multiparty system.

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Zambia: Challenges to democracy from Chinese influence and the role of pro-liberal movements.

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Arab Spring: Highlighting the importance of context-specific democratization paths and the role of social media in mobilization.

6) The Future and Challenges of Democracy

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Challenges:

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Illiberal Democracies: Elections may be held, but they’re often unfair, and essential democratic features like the rule of law and freedom of speech are weak.

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Authoritarian Resurgence: The rise of populist leaders who undermine democratic norms.

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Political Polarization: Divisions between political groups make compromise and effective governance difficult.

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Economic Inequality: Extreme wealth disparities can erode public trust and create social unrest.

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Information Manipulation and Misinformation: The spread of fake news and propaganda can distort public discourse and undermine democratic processes.

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Technological Disruption: Social media's influence on elections and political discourse presents new challenges to democracy.

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Globalization and its Effects: Global economic forces and the rise of non-democratic powers pose challenges to the spread and stability of democracy.

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Opportunities:

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Failure of Alternatives: The shortcomings of authoritarianism and other regimes may create opportunities for democracy.

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Citizen Support: Popular demand for democratic governance can drive change.

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Civil Society: Plays a crucial role in advocating for democratic values and holding leaders accountable.

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International Support: Organizations like the UN can assist with elections and democratic development.

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Factors Influencing the Future:

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Economic Development and Political Leadership: Economic growth can create conditions favorable to democracy, but effective leadership is needed to realize its potential.

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Civil Culture and Pluralism: A tolerant and engaged citizenry that respects diverse viewpoints is essential for a healthy democracy.

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Institutional Strength: Strong and independent institutions are crucial for upholding democratic principles and the rule of law.

Democracy Definition: a polyarchy system of government where power is vested in the people and exercised through a system of representation. it strives for political equality

Polyarchy: A system of government characterized by a high degree of political participation and competition among multiple centers of power. (various parties in power, broad political participation and competition)

Authoritarianism: systems with centralized power, limited participation and single-party-systems that control the agenda (ex: Russia or North Korea) performance legitimacy can occur here more often (the degree where the population recognizes the leader)

Illiberal Democracies: Hybrid regimes that hold elections but lack genuine competition, restrict freedoms, and erode the rule of law, presenting a challenge to democratic consolidation. (ex: Hungary)

Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

Direct Democracy: Citizens participate directly in decision-making through mechanisms such as referendums and initiatives.

Constitutionalism: The framework of laws and principles that define the powers and limits of government in a democratic system. (typically, constitutions can limit/prevent authoritarian rule)

Dahl’s 5 criteria

1. effective participation - everyone is heard

2. voting equality — every votes counts, no one group rigs the system

3. enlightened understanding — access to other information to make informed decisions

4. control over the political agenda — what issues are prioritized

5. inclusion of adults

   criteria include;

1. Popular Sovereignty: The government's authority derives from the consent of the governed and it recognized by the population

2. Free and Fair Elections: Citizens can choose their representatives in regular and transparent elections.

3. Effective Political Participation: Citizens have the right to participate in political processes, including voting, running for office, and engaging in public debate. this is seen in voting for equality for all and equal opportunities for control over the political agenda.

4. Rule of Law: All individuals, including those in power, are equal before the law.

5. Protection of Rights and Freedoms: Institutions protect fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion. (ex: Canada’s charter of rights and freedoms or the US’s constitution)

6. Accountability and Transparency: Governments and institutions are held accountable to the people and operate in a transparent manner. (ex; by opposition, free media that provide checks and balances on power)

Why Democracy over other regimes

Advantages:

1. Preventing Tyranny: Checks and balances on power prevent the concentration of authority in the hands of a single person or group, safeguarding against oppressive rule.

2. Upholding Essential Rights: Democratic systems guarantee fundamental rights, including political and civil liberties, that are absent in non-democratic regimes. (ex: constitutions)

3. Self-Determination: Citizens have the power to shape their future through participation in the political process, fostering self-governance.

4. Moral Autonomy: Individuals are free to develop their own moral principles and make decisions based on those principles, enhancing personal responsibility.

5. Human Development: Democracy encourages education, innovation, and personal growth, leading to a more developed society.

6. Protection of Interests: Citizens have a voice in government and can influence decisions that affect their lives, protecting their fundamental interests.

7. Political Equality: All citizens have equal rights and opportunities to participate in governance, regardless of their background.

8. Global Peace: Democratic countries are less likely to engage in war with each other, contributing to international stability (Democratic Peace Theory).

9. Prosperity: Market economies, which are prevalent in modern democracies, tend to generate greater affluence compared to other economic systems.

Challenges:

1. Tyranny of the Majority: The potential for majority rule to infringe upon the rights of minorities is a concern in democratic systems.

2. Influence of Wealth and Elites: Economic inequality can undermine political equality, as wealthy individuals and groups may exert disproportionate influence.

3. Complexity of Modern Issues: Addressing complex policy challenges in a democratic system can be slow and challenging, requiring compromise and consensus-building.

4. Political Polarization: Extreme partisan divisions can hinder effective governance and cooperation in democratic societies.

Theories of Democratization

Modernization Theory: This theory suggests that democracy emerges as a result of economic development, industrialization, and urbanization. The rise of a middle class and the spread of education are seen as key factors driving democratization.

Cultural Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of culture in shaping democratic values and institutions. Some cultures are seen as more conducive to democracy than others due to their historical traditions, values, and beliefs.

Structuralism Theory: This theory focuses on the impact of international systems and structures on the prospects for democracy within a society. External factors such as colonialism, globalization, and the influence of superpowers can shape democratic transitions.

Institutionalism: This theory highlights the importance of political institutions in the success and stability of democratic governance. Effective institutions, such as independent judiciaries, free media, and strong political parties, contribute to a functioning democracy.

Agent-Actor Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of individuals and groups in driving political and social change. Key actors, such as political leaders, social movements, and civil society organizations, influence the direction and pace of democratization.

Waves of Democratization

• first wave: marked by expansion of suffrage and voting rights prompted by liberalism ideas (ex: the French Revolution and American Revolution) reversed by fascism

• second wave: WW2 allied victory, rebuilding Europe and decolonization movements, establishing democratic movements reversed by newly independent states experiencing authoritarianism and military coups

• third wave: started with the Carnation Revolution (Portugal) and the collapse of the Soviet Union and other authoritarian regimes with multiple economic, social and political causes.

  • Legitimacy problems of authoritarianism

  • economic development

  • religious and cultural changes

  • external influences

  • snowballing effect

Theories to Democracy

Modernization theory: economic development, industrialization and urbanization lead to industrial economies, changes in social structures (ex: the creation of a middle class), education levels and communication technologies favourable to democratic practices (ex: the industrial revolution and its implications across Europe, creating democracy)

Cultural theory: cultural values like individualism, tolerance, and civic engagement create democracy (ex: Viking’s values of participatory decision-making v. Confucianism)

Structuralism: internal systems and dynamics are responsible for demcroacy’s success (ex: Soviet influence and slow democratization in Eastern Europe)

Institutionalism: strong institutions like an independent judiciary, free media and robust civil society are responsible for upholding checks on power and preventing concentrated power

Agent Actor Theory: the agency of individuals and groups to shape political systems

Obstacles to Democratization:

● Cultural Barriers: Values and beliefs that are incompatible with democratic principles, such as Confucianism's emphasis on authority and hierarchy, can hinder democratization. (ex: Confucianism, with its emphasis on group harmony, authority over liberty, and the merging of society and state)

● Economic Inequality: Extreme disparities in wealth and income can undermine political equality and create conditions favourable to authoritarianism.

• Political factors: state legitimacy, authority, and capacity to support democratic development lead to political instability

● External Interference: Intervention by foreign powers can disrupt democratic processes and support non-democratic regimes.

● Weak Institutions: Ineffective or corrupt institutions can undermine public trust in democracy and create opportunities for abuse of power.

● Illiberal Democracies: Hybrid regimes that hold elections but lack genuine competition, restrict freedoms, and erode the rule of law, presenting a challenge to democratic consolidation.

Canada’s Democratization

American Democratization