Key Concepts in Cognitive Psychology

Overview of Psychological Research

Levels of Psychological Explanations:

• Biological factors

• Mental states

• Social/cultural influences

Scope of Research:

• Universal applicability (all humans)

• Specific groups (e.g., schizophrenia patients)

• Individuals (e.g., personal anecdotes)

• Isolated actions (e.g., specific events)

Cognitive Psychology Origins

Focus of Cognitive Psychology:

• Study of knowledge acquisition, retention, and utilization.

Historical Foundations:

• Roots in philosophy (Epistemology): study of knowledge.

• Plato: Rationalism - innate knowledge accessed through reasoning.

• Aristotle: Empiricism - knowledge derived from sensory experience.

The Cognitive Revolution

Emergence in the 1950s and 1960s due to limitations of:

• Introspection: deemed unscientific.

• Behaviorism: focuses on observable behaviors, ignoring mental events.

Introspection Limitations

Wilhelm Wundt & Edward B. Titchener:

• Pioneers of experimental psychology, emphasized structuralism.

Limitations of Introspection:

• Unconscious thoughts.

• Lack of verifiability.

• Measurement difficulties.

• Uncertain self-report accuracy.

Gains from Structuralism

• Positioned psychology as a science.

• Reaction Time (RT) as a key cognitive research metric.

Behaviorism Dominance

• Focus on learning through observable behavior.

• B.F. Skinner developed behavior technology.

Recognized Limitations:

• Insufficient language acquisition models.

Intellectual Foundations of the Cognitive Revolution

• Shift from behaviorism to studying mental events.

• Transcendental Method: inference from observed evidence.

• Edward Tolman's experiments with rats demonstrated cognitive maps.

Research Methodologies in Cognitive Psychology

Process:

1. Hypothesis formation.

2. Prediction derivation.

3. Data collection.

4. Hypothesis confirmation/modification.

Methods:

• Performance accuracy measures.

• RT measures.

• Neuroimaging techniques (Cognitive Neuroscience, Clinical Neuropsychology).

Neural Basis of Cognition

Neurons:

• Structure: Dendrites, cell body, axon.

Synapses:

• Neurotransmitter action leads to action potentials.

• All-or-none principle.

Neural Plasticity:

• Adjustability of synaptic strengths crucial for learning/memory.

Brain Structures:

• Hindbrain: Medulla, pons, cerebellum (basic functions).

• Midbrain: Eye movement coordination, auditory relay, pain regulation.

• Forebrain: Cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system (emotional processing).

• Contralateral organization affects processing (e.g., visual fields).

Cognitive Neuroscience Methods

Neuropsychology:

• Lesion analysis effects on function.

Neuroimaging:

• CT scans: Quick, structural imaging.

• MRI: Detailed imaging.

• PET: Tracing activity with radioactive substances.

• fMRI: Tracing oxygen flow without radioactivity, shows activation.

Visual Perception

Dominance of Vision:

• More area dedicated to vision; visual inputs override other senses.

Photoreceptors:

• Rods & cones detect light.

Visual Pathway:

• Pathway from retina through thalamus to visual cortex (Area V1).

• Lateral Inhibition: Enhances edge detection.

Object Recognition

Types of Agnosia:

• Apperceptive: Recognizes features but not whole.

• Associative: Can perceive but not name.

Feature Recognition:

• Bottom-up (data-driven) vs. top-down (concept-driven).

Theories of Attention

Selective Attention:

• Focus on one stimulus, validated through dichotic listening tasks.

Inattentional Blindness:

• Missing stimuli in plain sight when focused elsewhere.

Change Blindness:

• Difficulty detecting changes in a visual scene.

Executive Control and Resource Management

Divided Attention:

• Limited capacity; affected by task similarity.

Automaticity:

• Tasks become routine, requiring less mental effort.

Conclusion - Attention and Perception in Psychology

A blend of cognitive processes, brain functions, and theories shapes the understanding of perception and attentional dynamics. Contextual influences on perception and cognition are crucial in psychological studies.