The Korean War and the Second Red Scare

The Cold War Expands: Korea and the Red Scare

Introduction

  • The lecture is divided into more manageable segments due to student feedback.
  • The focus shifts to the US's challenges in containing communism in 1949 and the subsequent impact on the Korean War.

Setbacks for the US in 1949

  • Soviet Nuclear Test: The Soviet Union successfully tested its nuclear weapon in 1949.
  • Fall of China: China fell to communism in the same year.
  • Sino-Soviet Pact (1950): The Soviet Union and China signed a mutual defense pledge, creating two fronts in the Cold War (Europe and Asia).
  • The loss of China was a major blow to the Truman administration and American anti-communists.
  • By 1950, many Americans believed the US was losing the Cold War.

The Korean War: Background

  • Division of Korea: After World War II, the US and the Soviet Union divided Korea along the 38th Parallel.
    • The Soviets occupied the North.
    • The US occupied the South.
  • Establishment of Separate Governments:
    • The Soviet Union established a communist government in North Korea under Kim Il-sung.
    • The US supported a capitalist government in South Korea.
  • South Korea was initially not a high priority in US containment strategy, with Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines considered more important.

The North Korean Invasion (June 1950)

  • North Korea launched a surprise invasion of South Korea.
  • Truman reversed course due to the speed and success of the North Korean attack.
  • Within days, North Korean troops entered Seoul.
  • Within a week, they pushed the South Korean army to the Pusan Perimeter.
  • NSC-68: Truman viewed the invasion as confirmation of NSC-68, believing the Soviets were behind the attack.
  • Kim Il-sung secured support from Stalin and Mao by promising a swift victory.
  • Stalin saw the invasion as a way to divert American attention from Europe.
  • Truman felt that inaction was not an option given the prevailing sentiment that the West was losing the Cold War.

Truman's Response: Bypassing Congress

  • Truman, influenced by his experiences in both World Wars, acted quickly to prevent escalation.
  • He bypassed Congress and did not seek a declaration of war, setting a precedent for expanded executive power in military interventions.
  • Truman sought international legitimacy through the UN, which authorized the use of force to restore the original border.
  • The US provided the majority of troops and commanded military operations, despite 16 nations contributing to the UN force.

Initial American Approval and Subsequent Shift

  • Initially, approximately 75% of Americans approved of Truman's decision.
  • The situation on the battlefield was dire, with South Korean forces struggling to hold the Pusan Perimeter.
  • Inchon Landing: General Douglas MacArthur devised a risky amphibious landing at Inchon to cut North Korean supply lines.
    • Inchon's extreme tides (varying about 29 feet) made it an unexpected and strategic choice.
  • The UN forces overwhelmed the North Koreans at Inchon, turning MacArthur into a national hero.
  • UN forces then drove North Korean troops out of South Korea entirely.

Change in War Aims and Chinese Intervention

  • Truman aimed to reunify Korea under an anti-communist government, a unique instance of rolling back communism during the Cold War.
  • China secretly prepared to aid North Korea.
  • Chinese Intervention: In late November 1950, Chinese troops crossed the border as UN forces approached the Chinese border.
  • UN forces suffered heavy casualties during a bitter retreat.
    • Approximately 10,000 marines endured an extremely cold retreat.
    • Almost every soldier suffered frostbite and half were wounded or killed.

Division Over Strategy and Truman's Unpopularity

  • Military leaders disagreed on how to respond to the Chinese advance.
  • The Joint Chiefs of Staff urged Truman to seek a negotiated peace.
  • MacArthur publicly advocated for all-out war, including the use of nuclear weapons, leading to a public conflict with Truman.
  • Truman's unpopularity: MacArthur's attacks on Truman and the stalemate in Korea led to a decline in Truman's public support (around 24% in 1951).
  • The Democratic Party became associated with being "weak on communism."

The Human Cost and Impact of Photography

  • The photography of David Douglas Duncan documented the brutal retreat of American marines.
  • Korea was the first American war where the public primarily viewed it through photographs, influencing public sentiment.
  • Images like "The Price of Victory" shifted focus from triumphant victory to the personal cost of war.
  • The public and photographers began to consider the war's impact on soldiers.

Stalemate and Armistice

  • MacArthur was fired in 1951, and Matthew Ridgway took command.
  • Despite armistice negotiations, war continued for two more years, resulting in 12,000 additional American deaths.
  • Dwight Eisenhower, promising to end the war, won the presidency.

Casualties and Consequences

  • Casualties:
    • Over 400,000 Chinese soldiers died.
    • Approximately 2,000,000 North and South Koreans died.
    • 33,000 Americans were killed.
    • 103,000 Americans were wounded.
  • The US could not claim outright victory for the first time since the War of 1812.

Geopolitical Impact

  • The Korean War transformed the Cold War into a global conflict.
  • The US pursued containment in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.
  • South Korea and Japan became key US allies in East Asia.
  • The war increased US interest in regional civil wars, including Vietnam.
  • Relations with China were poisoned, with diplomatic ties not restored until 1979.
  • The US maintains a large military presence in South Korea.

Military Spending and the Military-Industrial Complex

  • American military spending exploded between 1950 and 1955, reaching over 50% of the federal budget.
  • The US entered a state of permanent mobilization with closer ties between defense industries and the government.
  • The National Security Act of 1947 created the Department of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the CIA.
  • The US maintained a permanent war-making capability, unlike the demobilization after previous wars.

Human Costs and Fear of Nuclear War

  • The wars of containment had significant human costs, with millions of deaths in Korea, Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan, many of whom were civilians.
  • The Korean War heightened America's fear of nuclear attack and radioactive fallout due to direct engagement with communist forces backed by nuclear-armed states.
  • Extensive nuclear testing in the US and Pacific regions (e.g., Bikini Atoll) increased concerns about nuclear fallout.

Cultural Reflections of Nuclear Anxiety

  • Godzilla: The Japanese film "Godzilla" used a nuclear-spawned monster to critique nuclear testing, though the American version was edited.
  • Marvel Comics: Characters like The Hulk and Spider-Man, created by radioactive exposure, reflected the ambivalence of superpowers.
  • Civil Defense: Government propaganda promoted vigilance and calm, advocating for fallout shelters and "duck and cover" drills in schools.
  • The interstate highway system was partly designed for mass evacuation during a nuclear attack.

Limitations and Contradictions

  • Most Americans could not afford fallout shelters.
  • A practice evacuation in Mobile, Alabama, resulted in traffic jams.
  • The government built secret shelters for officials, raising questions about the fate of the general population.
  • Tests showing the destruction of suburban homes contradicted the idea that simple measures like hiding under a desk could ensure survival.

The Red Scare: Domestic Impact

  • Failures in Korea, the end of the US nuclear monopoly, and the fall of China led to fears that the US was losing the Cold War.
  • The belief that subversives at home were undermining the US gained traction.
  • The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated communist activities, creating paranoia.
  • The Smith Act was used against communists, leading to deportations, blacklisting, and imprisonment.
  • Truman's federal loyalty program empowered the FBI to investigate federal workers.

Paranoia and Accusations

  • The Red Scare spread throughout American society, with teachers, social workers, and corporate boards turning on each other.
  • Congress restricted radical political activity with the McCarran Acts.
  • Former Communist Party members, African Americans, and labor leaders were often targeted.
  • The number of actual communist spies uncovered was relatively small; the primary impact was instilling fear and paranoia.

Key Cases: Hiss and the Rosenbergs

  • Alger Hiss: Accused of providing State Department secrets to the Soviet Union when he was a member of the Roosevelt administration.
    • Richard Nixon gained prominence through his role in the investigation.
  • Ethel and Julius Rosenberg: Charged with passing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union. They were Jewish parents of two young boys that captivated the nation in 1953.
    • Their case sparked public debate, with some seeing them as spies and others as victims of anti-Semitism.
    • Both were executed in 1953.
    • Soviet documents later revealed that Julius was indeed a spy, but Ethel likely was not involved.

Hollywood and HUAC

  • HUAC investigated alleged communist activities in Hollywood, targeting screenwriters, producers, directors, and actors.
  • Ten screenwriters (the Hollywood Ten) were convicted of contempt of Congress for refusing to cooperate.
  • Hollywood executives created a blacklist of individuals with suspected communist ties.
  • HUAC incentivized people to "name names," creating an atmosphere of terror.
  • Arthur Miller's play "The Crucible" was an allegory of the HUAC investigations.

Joseph McCarthy and McCarthyism

  • Joseph McCarthy, a Republican senator from Wisconsin, became synonymous with the Red Scare.
  • McCarthy claimed to have a list of 205 known communists in the State Department.
  • McCarthy chaired influential hearings, attacking high-level government officials, but he had no evidence.
  • McCarthy's influence waned after he attacked the army.
  • Journalist Edward Murrow exposed McCarthy's lies in a televised documentary.
  • McCarthy's career ended in disgrace, but his tactics continued to influence American politics.

Legacy of the Red Scare

  • The end of McCarthy's career did not end anti-communism.
  • Republicans and Democrats alike attacked suspected radicals.
  • The Smith Act and loyalty oaths remained in place.
  • The charge of communism was used to discredit political opponents, including Martin Luther King.