Chapter 1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

Objectives of Chapter 1

• Define Psychology: Understanding behavioral and mental processes.

• Define Scientific Method: Explanation of its application in psychology.

• Schools of Thought: Overview of major psychological perspectives.

• Positive Psychology: Explanation of how it differs from other perspectives.

• Descriptive Research Methods: Analysis of their differences.

Psychology Defined

• Historical Context: Founded on philosophy and physiology.

• Etymology: From 'Psyche' (mind) and 'Logos' (study).

• Scientific Study: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Transition to Science: The application of the scientific method shifted psychology to a recognized science.

The Scientific Method

• Recognition as Science: Psychology acknowledged as scientific.

• Key Elements:

  • Observation: Behavior and mental processes.

  • Theory: General principles explaining facts.

  • Hypothesis: Testable predictions regarding behaviors.

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe and Theorize: Initial observations lead to theories.

2. Formulate a Hypothesis: Develop predictions.

3. Design a Study: Plan the research methodology.

4. Collect and Analyze Data: Gather and evaluate results.

5. Apply Results: Determine if the hypothesis is supported.

6. Communicate Findings: Share results for replication and validation.

Goals of Research

• Describe: Identify and classify behaviors.

• Explain: Suggest causes for behaviors.

• Predict: Conditions under which behaviors occur.

• Influence: Solve practical behavioral problems.

History of Psychology

Founding Father: Wilhelm Wundt

• Established the first psychological laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig.

• Focused on studying consciousness through sensation and introspection.

Schools of Thought

Edward Titchener

• Student of Wundt; introduced structuralism in the U.S.

• Analyzed conscious experiences based on sensations using introspection.

William James

• Introduced functionalism; described consciousness as a "stream".

• Focused on mental processes' practical function in adapting to the environment.

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology

• Various perspectives influencing theories and treatments of behavior.

• Practitioners often adopt an eclectic approach to therapy.

Major Psychological Perspectives

• Psychoanalytic Perspective: Emphasizes the unconscious mind (Freud, Jung, Adler).

• Behavioral Perspective: Focuses on observable behavior influenced by the environment (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura).

• Humanistic Perspective: Prioritizes subjective experiences and personal growth (Rogers, Maslow).

• Cognitive Perspective: Studies mental processes like memory and perception (Piaget, Chomsky).

• Biological Perspective: Examines biological processes and heredity (Olds, Sperry).

• Evolutionary Perspective: Investigates adaptive behaviors shaped by evolution (Darwin, Buss).

• Sociocultural Perspective: Analyzes behaviors influenced by social and cultural factors (Vygotsky).

• Positive Psychology: Focuses on strengths and factors enabling thriving (Seligman).

Key Contributors to Psychology

• Christine Ladd-Franklin: Pioneer in color vision research.

• Mary Whiton Calkins: First female APA president; studied memory.

• Margaret Floy Washburn: Influenced animal behavior studies.

• Francis Cecil Sumner: First African American Ph.D. in psychology; father of African American Psychology.

• Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark: Studied segregation's impact on children.

Specialty Areas in Psychology

• Clinical Psychologists: Focus on diagnosis and treatment.

• School Psychologists: Address learning and behavioral issues.

• Forensic Psychologists: Apply psychology in legal settings.

• Counseling Psychologists: Deal with adjustment issues.

• Physiological Psychologists: Explore biological bases of behavior.

• Experimental Psychologists: Conduct research experiments.

• Developmental Psychologists: Study life span development.

• Educational Psychologists: Analyze teaching and learning methods.

• Social Psychologists: Investigate behaviors in social contexts.

• Media Psychologists: Examine media influences on behavior.

• Industrial/Organizational Psychologists: Study workplace and environmental relationships.

Research Methods

Critical Thinking

• Evaluating claims critically to draw logical conclusions.

• Engage in independent thinking; challenge existing beliefs and findings.

Descriptive Research Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: Behavior observed in natural settings.

• Laboratory Observation: Behavior studied in controlled environments.

• Case Study: In-depth analysis of a single subject.

• Survey: Gather information via interviews or questionnaires.

Correlation Research

• Correlational studies analyze relationships between variables but do not imply causation.

• Correlation Coefficient indicates strength and direction (+1.00 to -1.00).

Experimental Method

• Only method establishing cause-effect relationships.

• Distinguishes between independent variables (manipulated) and dependent variables (measured).

• Control using groups, random assignment, and addressing biases (e.g., placebo).

Ethical Standards in Research

• Must conform to laws and obtain institutional approval.

• Participants should give informed consent and be debriefed.

• Ethical treatment of animal subjects is mandatory.