APUSH 16-19

2025 Test Topics Chapter 16-19 Industrial Era

Know the following topics and their significance:

Chapter 16, Western Expansion

US policies toward Native Americans, Dawes Act of 1887

• The Dawes Act of 1887 authorized the President to break up reservation land into small allotments to be parceled out to individuals, sent children to boarding schools, and spread christianity. 

• The Dawes Act also gave native Americans citizenship and the right to vote in 1924. 

• The Bruke Act of 1906 attempted to speed up the Dawes Act. 

• The Concentration Policy was a new reservation policy in 1851 in which each nation was designated a reservation. 

• In 1867, the Indian Peace Commission planned to move all tribes to two large reservations. 

• The U.S. Indian Policy was to negotiate treaties to sell to the US, Americanization of assimilation, adopt Christianity, white education, individual land ownership, adopt agrigulture, and take away food source to force to reservations = tracks of land. 

“Indian Wars” (conflicts with native tribes)(1850’s-80’s)

• Sand Creek Massacre: A brutal attack by Colorado militia on a Cheyenne and Arapaho camp, killing hundreds of unarmed Native Americans, including women and children. 

• Red Cloud’s War: Led by Lakota Chief Red Cloud, this conflict arose from the construction of the Bozeman Trail through Native American territory, resulting in battles against settlers and soldiers until a treaty was signed. 

• Battle of Little Bighorn: A major Native American victory where a combined force of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated Lieutenant Colonel George Custer and his troops. 

• The Nez Perce War(1877): A desperate attempt by the Nez Perce tribe to avoid forced relocation to a reservation, resulting in a long retreat across the Northwest. 

• Wounded Knee Masacre(1890): A tragic event where U.S. soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux, many of whom were unarmed, during a confrontation related to the Ghost Dance movement. 

• “India Wars” were based on differences in land ownership, railroad, settlers trespassing on Indian land, discovery of gold, slaughter of the buffalo, broken treaties. 

Homestead Act

• The Homestead Act(1862) permitted settlers to buy 160 acres for a small fee if they occupied the purchased land for five years and improved it. The act was pretty unsuccessful. 

Importance of railroads in the west

• The growth of railroads promoted westward expansion and helped create new markets around the world. They also led to the power of corporate businesses. 

Economic drivers for western settlers

• The most significant policy was the Homestead Act of 1862. The government also provided support to railroad companies by making transportation faster. Additionally, the Morril Act of 1862 provided land to fund land-grant colleges designed to cultivate skills needed in the west. The Dawes Act also encouraged migration by giving Native American land to white settlers. Also, the increase in mining and gold brought a surplus of migrants to the west looking for new opportunities. 

Open range ranching and its demise

• In APUSH, "open range ranching" refers to a system where cattle grazed freely across vast, unfenced areas of land in the American West, but its demise primarily came about due to the invention of barbed wire in the 1870s, which allowed farmers to fence off their land, effectively ending the open range system and leading to the decline of large cattle drives as ranchers were forced to enclose their grazing areas. 

Factors leading to its demise:

• Barbed wire: The invention of barbed wire by Joseph Glidden in 1873 allowed for the easy fencing of land, which significantly restricted the open range.

• Homestead Act: As more settlers claimed land under the Homestead Act, they began to farm the prairie, further reducing available grazing land. 

• Railroads: The expansion of railroads brought more settlers to the West and provided easier access to markets, making it less necessary for large cattle drives. 

• Overgrazing: Unregulated grazing on open land led to depletion of grasslands, impacting the sustainability of open range ranching.

Frederick Jackson Turner and his views on the American Frontier 

• Turner wrote the Turner Thesis which argued the existence of an unsettled frontier was crucial to American identity. He said the frontier allowed Americans to develop individualism and democracy to escape Eastern pressures. The frontier served as a symbol of freedom and opportunity, contributing to the myth of the west. Without it, came anxiety. 

Main factors stimulating western settlement

• The Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889 opened Indian territory to white settlers. 

• However, the main factors stimulating western settlement were railroads, land acts, and the gold rush. 

Mining towns in the west, know what they were like

• Life in a mining town was challenging in the best of times. Thrown up in haste to accommodate the throngs — nearly all of them young, unattached men — hotels and houses were crudely made of wood, neither cool in summer nor warm in winter. And winters could be fierce in the mountains.

Farmers and their challenges in the West

• Overproduction, the transcontinental railroad, and lack of political representation caused challenge to farmers in the West. Overproduction lowered the cost of products because the market became oversaturated, which made farmers less money. The transcontintneal railroad also made the price of shipping farmed goods from the west more expensive than other goods. Finally, farmers felt they were not represented politically because politicians represented large corporations. Acts designed to farmers, like the homestead act, were not thought out well, and harmed farmers more than just staying in the east. 

Transcontinental Railroad

• In APUSH, the Transcontinental Railroad is considered a significant event that physically connected the East and West Coast of the United States, facilitating rapid transportation of goods and people, significantly boosting westward expansion, and essentially "uniting" the nation by allowing for easier trade and travel between regions after the Civil War; its completion in 1869 marked a major milestone in American industrialization and economic development. 

Chapter 17, Industrialization

Capitalism, Laissez-faire economics, free enterprise

• Capitalism:
  The overall economic system where private individuals own and control the means of production, with the goal of profit through market competition. 

• Laissez-faire economics:
  A specific economic philosophy advocating for minimal government intervention in the marketplace, allowing the free market to regulate itself through supply and demand. 

• Free enterprise:
  The practical application of laissez-faire principles, allowing individuals to freely start and operate businesses with minimal government regulation. 

What distinguished the first from the second Industrial Revolution in the US?

• The second industrial revolution is known for its focus on steel and oil, along with new innovations such as the car and electricity. In contrast, the first industrial revolution focused on the textile industry. 

New technologies and inventions, inventors, New uses for petroleum

• Internal combustion engine:
  This engine, fueled by petroleum products like gasoline, became the foundation for automobiles and airplanes, revolutionizing transportation. 

• Oil refining advancements:
  New technologies allowed for efficient extraction and refining of crude oil, making petroleum more readily available as a fuel source. 

• Industrial power generation:
  Petroleum was increasingly used to power factories and machinery due to its energy density and flexibility. 

• Key inventors:
  While not solely responsible, inventors like Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler played a crucial role in developing the practical internal combustion engine powered by gasoline. 

• Electricity generation:
  Developments in electricity generation, including the incandescent light bulb, led to widespread electric lighting and powered new machinery. 

• Telecommunication advancements:
  The telephone and telegraph networks significantly improved communication capabilities. 

• Steel production:
  Improved steel manufacturing processes enabled the construction of larger and more complex structures.

Social Darwinism and its application, You should be able to tie this to “Gospel of Wealth”

• Social Darwinism is a theory that applies the concept of "survival of the fittest" from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to human society, suggesting that the wealthy and successful are naturally superior and that the poor are simply less fit, while the "Gospel of Wealth" is a philosophy that argues wealthy individuals have a moral responsibility to use their wealth to benefit society, often justifying this by claiming their success is a result of their inherent abilities, aligning with the principles of Social Darwinism. 

Need for advertising, when does that become a necessity?

• Advertising became significantly needed in American society during the late 19th century, primarily due to the rise of mass production and the Industrial Revolution, which created a large surplus of goods that needed to be marketed to a wider consumer base

Railroads and corruption, government assistance, unfair practices, accumulation of wealth,

• Land Grants:
  The federal government provided vast amounts of land to railroad companies to incentivize construction, leading to opportunities for corruption as insiders could manipulate land deals and profit significantly. 

• Stock Watering:
  Railroad companies would inflate the value of their stock by issuing more shares than the actual worth of the company, allowing them to raise capital through fraudulent means. 

• Rate Discrimination:
  Railroads charged different prices to different customers depending on their location and bargaining power, often favoring large businesses and harming farmers. 

• Credit Mobilier Scandal:
  This infamous example involved executives of the Union Pacific Railroad creating a construction company called "Credit Mobilier" and using it to overcharge the railroad for construction, then bribing politicians to cover up their actions. 

• Impact of Railroad Corruption:

• Public Distrust:

• The widespread corruption associated with railroads eroded public trust in government and big businesses. 

• Granger Movement:
  Farmer groups like the Grange emerged to fight against unfair railroad practices and advocate for government regulation. 

• Interstate Commerce Act:
  In response to public pressure, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887 to regulate railroad practices and prevent discriminatory pricing. 

Big business, methods of managing their industries,(cost-cutting, business organization, etc.)

             Proprietors, Partnerships, Corporations             

Vertical and horizontal integration and its impact on labor, consumers and owners

             Monopolies/Trusts, holding companies

1. Proprietorships, Partnerships, and Corporations

• Proprietorships: This is the simplest form of business, where one person owns and operates the company. The owner has full control over the business and is personally liable for all debts. This form is rare in large-scale industry because it limits capital and resources.

• Partnerships: In this model, two or more people own and run the business. Like proprietorships, owners share profits and liabilities. However, partnerships can bring more capital and skills to the business. This structure is still limited in terms of growth, especially for large industries.

• Corporations: The key to the growth of big business. A corporation is a legal entity separate from its owners, allowing it to raise large amounts of capital by issuing stock to the public. This structure enables businesses to grow rapidly and expand across multiple industries. The shareholders are not personally liable for the corporation’s debts, which lowers individual risk.

2. Vertical and Horizontal Integration

• Vertical Integration: This is when a company takes control of all the steps in the production process, from raw materials to manufacturing to distribution. The most famous example is Andrew Carnegie’s steel company, which controlled every aspect of steel production. Vertical integration allows businesses to reduce costs by eliminating middlemen and increases efficiency.

  • Impact on labor: While this can lead to increased profits for owners, workers may face lower wages, longer hours, and tougher working conditions as companies tighten control over every aspect of production.

  • Impact on consumers: In theory, vertical integration can lower prices for consumers due to reduced production costs, though in practice, companies may not always pass on those savings.

  • Impact on owners: Owners benefit greatly because they control the entire supply chain, leading to higher profits and greater market dominance.

• Horizontal Integration: This involves a company merging with or acquiring other companies that produce the same product. For instance, John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil grew by buying out competing oil companies. Horizontal integration consolidates market control and reduces competition, often leading to monopolies.

  • Impact on labor: Workers in smaller companies that are bought out may lose jobs, face wage cuts, or endure worse working conditions if the new larger company seeks to cut costs.

  • Impact on consumers: Consumers may face higher prices due to reduced competition, as monopolies or oligopolies can set prices without fear of competition.

  • Impact on owners: Owners gain control over a larger market share, often increasing profits, but they may also face government scrutiny or regulation if they become too dominant.

3. Monopolies, Trusts, and Holding Companies

• Monopolies: A monopoly exists when one company has complete control over an industry, effectively eliminating competition. Monopolists can set prices, control production, and stifle innovation. The classic example is Standard Oil, which by the late 1800s controlled nearly 90% of the U.S. oil industry.

  • Monopolies often lead to higher prices, less innovation, and worse working conditions for employees because there is no competition pushing companies to improve.

• Trusts: A trust is a legal arrangement where several companies in an industry are managed by a single board of trustees. The trustees can set prices, production quotas, and business strategies across multiple firms, making it a form of cartel. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust is a well-known example.

  • The goal of a trust was to consolidate power, reduce competition, and stabilize prices, but it often led to less consumer choice and less competitive labor markets.

• Holding Companies: A holding company is a business that owns the stock of other companies, rather than producing goods or services itself. The holding company controls the companies it owns and can coordinate their actions without actually merging them. For example, J.P. Morgan's U.S. Steel was a holding company that controlled many smaller steel producers.

  • Holding companies made it easier to control large industries without needing to directly run every subsidiary, and they also allowed for more diverse investments, but like monopolies, they led to concentration of economic power and potential anti-competitive behavior.

The Big Picture: Economic Impact

The rise of big businesses and the methods used to manage industries (vertical/horizontal integration, monopolies, trusts, and holding companies) fundamentally changed the U.S. economy by concentrating economic power in the hands of a few large corporations. These changes led to:

• Economic inequalities: Business owners (like Carnegie, Rockefeller, and Morgan) amassed vast fortunes, while laborers often lived in poverty and worked under harsh conditions.

• Labor movements: The concentration of power in big businesses led to the rise of labor unions and strikes as workers sought better wages, working conditions, and recognition. The famous Haymarket Square Riot and the Pullman Strike are examples of these struggles.

• Government regulation: As monopolies and trusts grew, the government began to intervene. The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) and the Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) were attempts to break up monopolies and restore competition to the marketplace.

In conclusion, big businesses reshaped the U.S. economy, society, and government during the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. While they created wealth and drove innovation, they also sparked debates over the fairness of their practices, leading to the regulation of monopolies and greater protection for workers and consumers.

Taylorism

• In APUSH, "Taylorism" refers to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, which aimed to significantly increase industrial productivity by breaking down work tasks into smaller, standardized motions, closely monitoring worker performance with time studies, and implementing a strict hierarchy to maximize efficiency, often leading to worker dissatisfaction due to its repetitive and dehumanizing nature. 

Antitrust legislation

• In APUSH, "antitrust legislation" refers to laws like the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), which aimed to prevent monopolies and promote competition in the American business market, primarily by targeting practices that restricted interstate trade and commerce, marking a significant step towards government intervention in the economy during the Gilded Age. 

Labor issues: unions, methods of opposition, major strikes and protests

• In APUSH, "labor issues" primarily refer to the struggles between workers and factory owners during the Gilded Age, where workers sought better conditions through forming unions, using methods like strikes and protests to fight for improved wages, shorter hours, and safer working environments, often facing strong opposition from businesses and sometimes government intervention to suppress labor movements; notable strikes include the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the Homestead Strike, and the Pullman Strike of 1894. 

Key Points:

• Unions:
  Organizations formed by workers to collectively bargain with employers for better working conditions, including the Knights of Labor (early, inclusive) and the American Federation of Labor (led by Samuel Gompers, focused on skilled workers). 

• Methods of opposition to unions:

  • Company tactics: Employers often used anti-union strategies like hiring strikebreakers, surveillance, intimidation, and blacklisting union members. 

  • Government intervention: Authorities frequently sided with businesses during strikes, sometimes deploying military force to break up protests. 

• Major Strikes and Protests:

  • Great Railroad Strike of 1877: A nationwide strike by railroad workers protesting wage cuts, which was violently suppressed by federal troops. 

  • Haymarket Riot (1886): A labor protest in Chicago that turned violent when a bomb exploded, leading to negative public perception of unions, particularly the Knights of Labor. 

  • Homestead Strike (1892): A bitter strike at the Carnegie Steel Company in Pennsylvania, marked by violence between workers and Pinkerton detectives hired by the company. 

  • Pullman Strike (1894): A nationwide railroad strike led by the American Railway Union in response to wage cuts at the Pullman Palace Car Company, again resulting in federal intervention to break the strike. 

• Collective bargaining:
  The process where union representatives negotiate with employers on behalf of their members. 

• Strike:
  A work stoppage where employees refuse to work until their demands are met. 

• Scab:
  A worker who crosses a picket line to work during a strike, often seen as a traitor by other union members. 

• Yellow Dog Contract:
  An agreement where an employee promises not to join a union as a condition of employment. 

IWW (the “Wobblies”)

• The IWW, or Industrial Workers of the World, was a radical labor organization founded in 1905 with the goal of uniting all workers—regardless of skill, race, or gender—into one large union to overthrow capitalism and establish a more just society. The group became known colloquially as the “Wobblies” (a nickname that arose from their slogan, "An injury to one is an injury to all").

Muller v. Oregon

• Muller v. Oregon (1908) was a landmark Supreme Court case that had a significant impact on labor law and women's rights in the United States. The case involved the constitutionality of an Oregon law that limited the number of hours women could work in certain industries, specifically laundry and factory work.

Background

• The Oregon Law: The state of Oregon passed a law in 1903 that limited women working in factories and laundries to a maximum of 10 hours per day. The law was justified on the grounds of protecting women's health and welfare, arguing that long working hours were detrimental to women, particularly due to their presumed weaker physical constitution compared to men.

• The Case: The case began when Curt Muller, a laundry owner, was charged with violating this law. He had forced Marie Muller, one of his female employees, to work more than 10 hours a day. Muller challenged the law, arguing that it was an unconstitutional restriction on his business and violated his employees' freedom to contract.

Key Legal Question

• The main issue in the case was whether the Oregon law that restricted women's working hours violated the 14th Amendment, which guarantees equal protection and due process under the law. Specifically, Muller argued that the law interfered with the freedom of contract between employers and employees.

The Decision

• The Supreme Court, in a 7-2 decision, upheld the Oregon law. The Court ruled that it was within the state's power to regulate working conditions for women, given the state's interest in protecting public health and the well-being of women workers.

• The Court's opinion was written by Justice David J. Brewer, who justified the decision by emphasizing the unique role women played in society as mothers and caregivers. The ruling relied on the argument that women needed special protection due to their reproductive functions and physical differences from men. This rationale reflected the prevailing attitudes of the time that women were weaker and needed more protection in the workplace.

Significance of the Case

• Labor Rights and Women's Protection: Muller v. Oregon was a key case in the development of labor laws in the early 20th century. It marked the first time that the Court accepted the idea that the government had the right to regulate working conditions to protect workers, especially women. This decision helped lay the groundwork for future labor reforms, although its gender-specific reasoning would later be challenged as discriminatory.

• Brandeis Brief: One of the most notable aspects of the case was the "Brandeis Brief," which was submitted by Louis Brandeis, who would later become a Supreme Court Justice. Instead of relying solely on legal precedents, Brandeis presented a highly detailed brief that included scientific and sociological data to argue that long working hours were detrimental to women's health. This brief is considered one of the first uses of social science in legal arguments and is still cited as a key moment in legal history.

• Impact on Women’s Labor Rights: Although the decision seemed to protect women, it also reinforced the idea that women were inherently weaker and needed to be treated differently from men in the workforce. While this decision allowed for some protective labor laws for women, it also limited women's rights in the workplace by reinforcing gendered stereotypes and legal distinctions between men and women.

• Precedent for Future Cases: The decision in Muller v. Oregon influenced future rulings in labor law, but it also marked a period of tension between protective labor legislation and equal rights for women. The ruling helped justify the continued regulation of women's labor conditions but did not extend similar protections to men, who were often seen as more capable of handling long hours and hazardous working conditions.

Interstate Commerce Act, what led to it

The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was a landmark federal law aimed at regulating the railroad industry, which was becoming a key part of the U.S. economy but was rife with abuses like unfair pricing, discriminatory practices, and monopolistic control.

Key Points:

• Purpose: The Act sought to curb the power of railroads by making them subject to federal regulation. It aimed to ensure that railroad rates were reasonable and just and that they did not engage in unfair practices, such as price discrimination between different customers or regions.

• Establishment of the ICC: The Act created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the first federal regulatory agency, tasked with overseeing and enforcing the rules.

What Led to It:

• Railroad Monopolies: In the late 1800s, railroads were often controlled by a few large corporations, and their power over pricing and routes was unchecked.

• Public Outcry: Farmers, small businesses, and workers complained about unfair pricing and discrimination in freight rates. The Granger Movement (farmers' push for reforms) and various state-level laws sought to address these issues but lacked the power to challenge the railroads at the national level.

• Political Pressure: There was increasing pressure from reformers and politicians (especially from the Populist and Progressive movements) to regulate big business and curb monopolistic practices.

Chapter 18, Cities

Urban growth, its causes and effects

Urban Growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was driven by rapid industrialization, technological advances, and migration patterns, leading to significant changes in American society.

Causes:

1. Industrialization: The rise of factories and industries, especially in cities, created jobs and drew workers from rural areas to urban centers.

2. Technological Advances: Innovations like the elevator and steel-frame construction allowed cities to grow upward (skyscrapers) and outward, facilitating urban expansion.

3. Immigration: Millions of immigrants from Europe and Asia arrived, seeking work in industrial cities, contributing to population growth.

4. Transportation: The expansion of railroads and streetcars made it easier for people to live in cities and travel within them.

Effects:

1. Overcrowding: Cities became overcrowded, leading to poor living conditions in tenements and slums, with inadequate sanitation and health issues.

2. Economic Growth: Urban areas became economic hubs, fostering innovation and trade, but also widening the gap between rich and poor.

3. Labor Movements: As factory workers faced poor conditions, labor unions and strikes gained momentum, advocating for better wages, hours, and conditions.

4. Cultural Diversity: Immigrants brought new cultural influences, shaping the social and cultural fabric of cities, but also causing tensions over assimilation.

5. Social Reform: The challenges of urbanization led to progressive reforms, including efforts to improve housing, labor rights, and public health.

Cities and conditions in a laissez-faire environment

Conditions in Cities:

1. Overcrowding: Rapid population growth led to densely packed neighborhoods, especially in poor areas. Tenement housing was common, with multiple families living in small, unsanitary apartments.

2. Poor Sanitation: Many cities lacked effective waste management systems. Contaminated water and open sewers led to frequent outbreaks of disease, including cholera and tuberculosis.

3. Pollution: Industrial activity caused air and water pollution, making cities unhealthy. Smoke from factories, overcrowded streets, and garbage piles created unsightly and dangerous environments.

4. Labor Exploitation: Industrial jobs in cities often had long hours, low wages, and unsafe conditions, leading to worker protests and the rise of labor unions.

5. Social Inequality: There was a stark contrast between the wealthy and the poor. The rich lived in luxurious mansions and exclusive neighborhoods, while the poor faced grueling labor and squalid living conditions.

Efforts to Improve:

• Reforms: Social reformers, like Jacob Riis (in his book How the Other Half Lives), highlighted the plight of the urban poor, pushing for changes like better housing and public health.

• Government Action: Gradually, cities began to implement sanitation laws, build public parks, and improve housing standards.

Population growth, overcrowding

Immigration, Old and New; adjusting to city life, living conditions, political participation, working 

        Conditions

Immigration: Old vs. New

• Old Immigration (pre-1880s): Primarily from Northern and Western Europe (e.g., Ireland, Germany, Scandinavia). These immigrants were often Protestant and more easily assimilated into American society.

• New Immigration (1880s-1920s): Immigrants came from Southern and Eastern Europe (e.g., Italy, Poland, Russia), often Catholic or Jewish, and faced greater challenges in assimilating due to cultural, religious, and language differences. Many also came from rural backgrounds, making city life a stark contrast.

Adjusting to City Life

• Immigrants and rural migrants faced culture shock, often struggling with language barriers, unfamiliar customs, and overcrowded living conditions. Ethnic neighborhoods (e.g., Little Italy, Chinatown) provided some comfort and community but also isolated immigrants from broader society.

Living Conditions

• Many immigrants lived in tenements, which were overcrowded, poorly ventilated, and lacked proper sanitation. These conditions contributed to widespread disease and high mortality rates, especially in slums.

Political Participation

• Immigrants often turned to political machines for support, particularly in cities with strong, corrupt organizations like Tammany Hall in New York. These machines offered jobs, legal help, and social services in exchange for votes, but were also tied to graft and patronage.

Working Conditions

• Industrial jobs in cities were often dangerous, with long hours, low wages, and unsafe conditions. Many workers, including immigrants and women, labored in factories, mines, and sweatshops. This exploitation led to the rise of labor unions and strikes seeking better conditions, though progress was slow.

Skyscrapers and what made them possible

What Made Them Possible:

1. Steel Frame Construction: The development of steel framing allowed buildings to rise higher without relying on thick, load-bearing walls. Steel provided the strength needed to support tall structures.

2. Elevators: The invention of the elevator by Elisha Otis in the 1850s made it practical to build multi-story buildings, as people could now easily access higher floors.

3. Electricity: The widespread adoption of electricity powered lighting and elevators, making taller buildings more functional and comfortable for occupants.

Views of upper and middle classes on the urban  poor and their situation

• The upper and middle classes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries generally viewed the urban poor with a mix of disdain and pity, but their responses to their situation were often shaped by social, economic, and racial prejudices.

Immigration Reform efforts

Immigration reform efforts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were driven by concerns over the social, economic, and cultural impacts of mass immigration, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe.

Key Reform Efforts:

1. Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): One of the first major immigration restrictions, this law banned Chinese laborers from entering the U.S., reflecting racial prejudice and fears of job competition.

2. Immigration Act of 1891: This act established the Federal Bureau of Immigration, creating more organized screening at U.S. ports and barring entry to certain individuals (e.g., criminals, the mentally ill).

3. Settlement Houses and Assimilation Programs: Reformers like Jane Addams (Hull House) focused on helping immigrants adapt to American life by offering social services, education, and English classes, though often with the goal of encouraging assimilation into middle-class American culture.

4. Ellis Island (1892): The opening of Ellis Island in New York Harbor as an immigration processing center aimed to streamline and regulate immigration, ensuring that newcomers were medically and legally fit to enter.

5. National Origins Act (1924): This law established strict quotas that favored immigration from Northern and Western Europe and drastically reduced immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, reflecting nativist and xenophobic attitudes.

Efforts to improve  urban living conditions

Key Efforts:

1. Sanitation Improvements: Cities implemented sewage systems, clean water supplies, and trash collection to reduce disease.

2. Building Codes: New building regulations were introduced to ensure safer, more hygienic housing, including fire codes and limits on overcrowding.

3. Settlement Houses: Reformers like Jane Addams created settlement houses to provide social services, education, and healthcare to immigrants and the poor.

4. Public Health Campaigns: Efforts to combat disease through better medical care and public health educationwere led by city officials and reformers.

Settlement Houses

• Settlement houses were community centers established in urban areas, primarily by middle-class reformers, to provide social services to immigrants and the poor.

Birth of a Nation

• The Birth of a Nation" (1915) is a controversial silent film directed by D.W. Griffith, based on the novel The Clansmanby Thomas Dixon. The film is famous for its groundbreaking technical achievements, including innovative use of narrative techniques, but it is also highly criticized for its racist portrayal of African Americans and its glorification of the Ku Klux Klan. Set during and after the Civil War, it depicts the Klan as heroes protecting white Southern society from the perceived chaos of Reconstruction. The film’s release sparked widespread protests from civil rights groups like the NAACP, who condemned it for perpetuating harmful stereotypes and inciting racial violence, marking it as a significant yet deeply problematic moment in American cinema history.

Chinese Exclusion Act, the Gentleman’s agreement

• The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was a federal law that banned Chinese laborers from immigrating to the United States, reflecting widespread anti-Chinese sentiment and fears of job competition, particularly on the West Coast. It was the first significant law to restrict immigration based on race and nationality. The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907, a diplomatic arrangement between the U.S. and Japan, aimed to limit Japanese immigration by unofficially restricting the issuance of passports to Japanese laborers, while allowing the entry of family members of those already in the U.S.

Political Machines, Tammany Hall

• Political machines were powerful, often corrupt political organizations that controlled local governments, typically in large cities, by providing jobs, services, and favors to immigrants and the poor in exchange for votes. One of the most famous political machines was Tammany Hall, based in New York City. Led by figures like Boss Tweed, Tammany Hall gained immense control over city politics in the late 19th century, using patronage, bribery, and manipulation to maintain power. While they provided much-needed services to immigrants, they were also notorious for political corruption, embezzlement, and exploiting the system for personal gain. Despite their corruption, political machines played a key role in shaping urban politics during the era.

Chapter 19, Political issues

The Do Nothing Presidents

• The "Do-Nothing Presidents" refers to U.S. presidents during the late 19th century, particularly those in the Gilded Age, who were seen as weak and ineffective in addressing the pressing issues of the time. These presidents, such as Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, and Benjamin Harrison, were largely passive in their approach to governance, often allowing Congress and powerful business interests to dominate policymaking. Their administrations were marked by political gridlock, minimal government intervention in economic affairs, and limited action on issues like labor rights, corruption, and civil service reform. This hands-off approach earned them the "do-nothing" label, especially in contrast to the more active reform movements of the Progressive Era that followed.

Grant and his woes close elections

• Ulysses S. Grant’s presidency (1869-1877) was marred by significant corruption scandals, particularly within his administration, despite his personal integrity. Although Grant himself was not directly involved in the scandals, his associates, such as those in the Whiskey Ring and Credit Mobilier, were caught in bribery and fraud schemes. Despite these issues, Grant won the 1868 election narrowly, and his 1872 re-election was more decisive, with the opposition fractured. However, his second term was overshadowed by political infighting and scandals, undermining his effectiveness. These troubles and the close nature of his first victory contributed to his legacy being tainted by the perception of weak leadership and governmental corruption during the Gilded Age.

Close elections, Voter turnout, new methods of “politicking”

• Close Elections: Elections in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were often very close, with political contests marked by intense regional and party divisions. For example, the 1876 election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel Tilden was one of the closest and most controversial in U.S. history, with disputed electoral votes leading to a compromise that ended Reconstruction.

• Voter Turnout: Voter turnout during this period was generally high, especially in the Gilded Age, when it reached about 80-90% in some elections. Political participation was a central part of civic life, especially in urban areas, though disenfranchisement of certain groups, like African Americans in the South, limited participation.

• New Methods of "Politicking": Politicians increasingly used modern campaigning techniques, such as mass rallies, printed materials (e.g., pamphlets and posters), and party machines to mobilize voters. The spoils system also became prominent, where political patronage (jobs, favors, etc.) was used to gain support. Additionally, muckrakers and journalists played an important role in exposing corruption, influencing public opinion and electoral outcomes.

Patronage: Stalwarts, “Half-Breeds”, Independents/”Mugwumps”  

• Patronage was the practice of granting government jobs to political supporters. The Republican Party split into factions over this issue. Stalwarts were pro-patronage, supporting the spoils system and resisting civil service reform. The Half-Breeds sought moderate reform, advocating for merit-based hiring but still operating within the patronage system. The Independents or Mugwumps were reform-minded Republicans who pushed for the end of patronage, championing civil service reforms like the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883) to curb political corruption.

Major political Issues, who supported what: Tariffs, Veterans pensions, Currency issues

• The major political issues of the late 19th century included tariffs, veterans' pensions, and currency policies. Tariffs were supported by industrialists and the Republican Party, aiming to protect U.S. industries by taxing imported goods. Veterans' pensions were supported by both political parties, particularly after the Civil War, as a means of aiding veterans. Currency issues were fiercely debated: Democrats and farmers supported bimetallism (silver and gold coinage) to inflate the currency and make debts easier to pay, while Republicans favored gold standard to ensure stable money value and conservative economic policy.

Monetary Policy/Currency issues: Gold vs Silver coinage, greenbacks; who supported which 

      and why?

• Monetary policy in the late 19th century centered on the debate between gold and silver coinage. Supporters of bimetallism, including farmers, silver miners, and Democrats, wanted to mint silver alongside gold to increase the money supply and cause inflation, which would help indebted farmers. The gold standard was backed by industrialists, bankers, and Republicans, who argued it would provide economic stability and maintain the value of the dollar. The Greenbacks (paper currency issued during the Civil War) were supported by inflationists, but they were phased out as part of efforts to stabilize the economy.

Grangers -> Farmers Alliances ->Populist Party Populists and their goals, outcomes

• The Grangers were early farmers' organizations that sought to address issues like unfair railroad rates. They evolved into the Farmers' Alliances, which advocated for cooperative farming and political reforms to aid farmers, like regulated railroads and currency inflation. These efforts culminated in the Populist Party (1892), which called for a graduated income tax, government ownership of railroads, bimetallism, and direct election of senators. While the Populists were not immediately successful, they laid the groundwork for future reforms, influencing both the Progressive Era and the New Deal.

       How did the Interstate Commerce Act play a role in this saga?

• The Interstate Commerce Act (1887) was a key victory for the Populists and farmers’ groups, particularly the Grangers, who had long campaigned against exploitative railroad practices. The law created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad rates and practices. While its impact was initially limited, it was an important step in the government’s increasing role in regulating business and responding to the demands of farmers and working-class citizens.

      * I posted a quick read on Granger Laws and their outcome in Pages

Populist / ”Omaha” Party platform

• The Omaha Platform (1892) was the official platform of the Populist Party. It called for free coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, direct election of U.S. senators, government ownership of railroads, and a shorter workweek. The platform reflected the party's core support base—farmers and laborers—and sought to challenge the power of big business, especially railroads and banks. The Populists aimed to expand democracy and economic fairness but ultimately struggled to gain lasting political power, though many of their ideas were later adopted by the Progressive movement.

Supreme Court cases: Wabash vs. Illinois, Munn vs. Illinois ( link these to the “Slaughterhouse” 

      Cases)

• Wabash v. Illinois (1886) ruled that states could not regulate railroad rates for interstate commerce, setting the stage for federal regulation. This decision was a blow to the Grangers and other reformers who wanted state-level control of business. In contrast, Munn v. Illinois (1877) upheld state regulation of businesses that were seen as affecting the public interest, such as grain elevators. Both cases are linked to the "Slaughterhouse Cases" (1873), which narrowly interpreted the 14th Amendment's protections and limited states' ability to regulate economic practices, especially in favor of the working class.

Presidents Garfield and Arthur on patronage and reform

• President Garfield and Chester A. Arthur had differing approaches to patronage. Garfield, who was assassinated shortly after taking office, was committed to civil service reform but was caught between the Stalwarts and Half-Breeds. Arthur, his successor, initially seen as a product of the Stalwart faction, surprised many by embracing reform. He signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), which established merit-based hiring for federal jobs, ending the worst abuses of patronage and laying the foundation for modern civil service.

Politics in the South:  who supported which party and why (I I lectured on this in class)

• In the post-Reconstruction South, Democrats dominated state and local politics, largely due to the disenfranchisement of African Americans and the legacy of the Jim Crow laws, which institutionalized racial segregation. Republicans were mostly associated with the federal government and Reconstruction, and their support base in the South dwindled as white supremacy took hold. The Democratic Party promoted segregation, disenfranchisement, and the status quo, while Republicans were associated with the push for civil rights and equality for African Americans.

        Jim Crow Laws, segregation, violence, 

        Methods of keeping blacks from voting, post-Reconstruction

• After Reconstruction, Southern states passed Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation in public spaces. These laws were accompanied by violence from groups like the Ku Klux Klan, which sought to intimidate African Americans and suppress their political rights. Methods to keep Black Americans from voting included poll taxes, literacy tests, and the grandfather clause, which effectively disenfranchised Black voters despite the 15th Amendment's guarantee of voting rights.

        Plessy vs. Ferguson

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) was a Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." The case involved Homer Plessy, who was arrested for sitting in a "whites-only" railroad car. This ruling legalized segregation in public facilities across the South, reinforcing the system of racial inequality until it was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

• Woman’s Suffrage at the state level

  Early adopters:

  Wyoming became the first territory (later state) to grant full women's suffrage in 1869, followed by other Western states like Colorado, Utah, and Idaho in the late 19th century. 

• Progressive Era push:

  During the Progressive Era, the movement for women's suffrage gained momentum at the state level, with many states adding women's suffrage to their ballots. 

• Strategy of state-by-state campaigns:

  Women's suffrage organizations like the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) often focused on lobbying state legislatures and organizing ballot initiatives to achieve suffrage state by state. 

• Impact of Western states:

  The relatively progressive political climate in Western states contributed to their early adoption of women's suffrage.