lesson 12: Connectivity and Exploitation in a Digital Age

Enduring Question

• The central question we're exploring: How do the very tools and platforms designed to connect us also introduce new dangers and divisions into our world?

Key Terminology

• Cyber warfare: This is an umbrella term encompassing the use of digital technologies in times of conflict. It includes actions like hacking, denial-of-service attacks aimed at disrupting online services, and the deployment of malicious software (malware) to damage enemy systems.

• Hybrid warfare: An evolved form of conflict that mixes traditional military tactics with information warfare strategies. This includes spreading disinformation, launching cyberattacks, and applying economic pressures to achieve strategic objectives.

• Cyber security: The measures taken by governments, organizations, and individuals to protect themselves from online threats. These defenses include firewalls, systems that detect intrusions, encryption methods to secure data, and various security protocols.

• WannaCry: A notorious computer worm that spread rapidly in 2017, targeting unpatched Microsoft Windows systems globally. It encrypted data on hard drives and demanded ransom for its release, highlighting the severe vulnerabilities in critical digital infrastructure.

Digital Politics

• This involves the use of digital technologies by political figures, institutions, and citizens in the political sphere. It covers a broad range of activities from online campaigning to digital activism and e-governance.

• It takes place across various internet-connected platforms and devices, including social media, websites, and mobile applications.

• Key Digital Technologies (DT) include websites, email, social media, instant messaging, podcasting, and mobile devices.

• There are two main types of digital politics:

  • Digitally enabled politics: This refers to traditional political activities that are enhanced or augmented through digital technologies, making them more efficient or accessible.

  • Digitally based politics: These are political activities that are entirely dependent on digital technologies, such as online social movements and cyber activism, which could not exist without the internet.

• Digital politics has roots back in the 1990s, but the rapid advancement of technology continually reshapes its landscape.

Cyber Security: A Prehistory

• Think of computers as digital filing cabinets storing vast amounts of sensitive data, which underscores the importance of cybersecurity.

• The NSA recognized the potential of computers for intelligence and codebreaking early on, working with them as early as the 1960s.

• By 1968, the NSA operated 100 computers occupying 5 acres, illustrating the considerable scale of early computing facilities.

• Absolute security is unattainable; it remains a theoretical ideal. Pursuing perfect security is often too costly and impractical.

• 99 + infinite cost (guns and butter): This economic principle shows the trade-off between investing in defense (guns) versus social programs (butter). In cybersecurity, it highlights the balance between robust security measures and usability.

• In 1974, IBM introduced the Data Encryption Standard (DES) as an early encryption method for securing digital communications.

• Allegedly, the NSA intentionally weakened DES to maintain its intelligence-gathering capabilities and suppress competition in the encryption market.

• Security should be viewed as an ongoing process rather than a fixed state. It requires continuous adaptation and improvement.

• The longevity of security updates on devices is crucial for maintaining their security and protecting against emerging threats.

• A 1979 training simulation at NORAD simulated a nuclear attack, revealing the potential for misinterpreting early warning systems.

• The 1983 film WarGames, which depicted a hacker accessing a military supercomputer, was discussed by President Reagan with his advisors.

• High school students, inspired by WarGames, began attempting intrusions into computer systems, highlighting the broad accessibility of hacking knowledge.

• The existence of 8000 networked systems without security in the early days underscores the initial vulnerabilities of computer networks.

• National Security Decision Directive 145 (NSDD 145) granted the NSA extensive authority over the security of government computer systems.

• In 1986, a minor accounting error led to West German hackers, funded by the KGB, infiltrating networks, demonstrating how small oversights can lead to significant breaches.

• Information warfare can involve strategic attacks that exploit weaknesses in automated control systems within critical infrastructure, such as refineries, posing risks of physical damage and disruption.

• Effective cybersecurity relies more on basic security practices than on expensive hardware solutions. Regular patching and strong passwords are vital.

• Penetration testers in the 1980s found it easy to access systems, leading the NSA to be skeptical about achieving robust security, a view echoed by figures like Putin.

• Today, events like "Hack the Pentagon" invite ethical hackers to test the security of government systems.

• The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) plays a key role in creating and promoting cryptographic standards.

• Cryptography is inherently complex and challenging.

• A paper in 1997 broke a leading candidate for a NIST competition, highlighting the ongoing challenges in developing secure cryptographic algorithms.

• Passwords that are difficult for humans to remember are often easily cracked by computers, highlighting the need for advanced authentication methods.

Return of Securitization

• The cybersecurity problems that surfaced in the 1960s were too complex for any single entity to solve alone, requiring a coordinated, interdisciplinary approach.

• These issues were too intricate for simple legislative fixes, necessitating comprehensive, long-term strategies.

• Many cybersecurity challenges that seem new today have historical precedents, revealing the cyclical nature of these issues.

• Although many cybersecurity challenges remain unresolved, significant lessons have been learned, informing current practices.

• Early warnings have convinced leaders that quick, simplistic solutions can be counterproductive, emphasizing careful planning and assessment.

Technological Determinism

• Consider these examples of technological determinism:

  • The idea that birth control leads to promiscuity implies a direct link between technology and behavior.

  • The belief that television makes people less intelligent suggests that technology directly impairs cognitive abilities.

  • The defense in the Harvey Milk murder case used the idea that junk food can cause violent behavior, linking diet and technology to criminal actions.

  • Concerns about video games causing addiction are common, suggesting that games can lead to compulsive behavior.

  • Linking cars and public transportation to obesity suggests that transportation technology promotes sedentary lifestyles.

• These narratives are appealing because they offer simple explanations for complex social issues but often oversimplify the relationship between technology and society.

Why Digital Technology Matters

• Before the internet, citizens primarily received political information passively, with limited participation in political discussions.

• The medium through which information is conveyed shapes its impact. Consider the influence of CB radio or sensationalist yellow journalism.

• Traditional media like television, radio, and newspapers acted as gatekeepers of news, shaping public opinion.

• There were limited opportunities for citizens to communicate directly with politicians or the media.

• President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "fireside chats" fostered a sense of connection with the American people through radio.

Design for Who?

• A discussion about whether SEO experts or Google are responsible for the current state of the internet, regarding information quality and accessibility.

Why Digital Technology Matters (Continued)

• Digital technologies are interactive, enabling a multidirectional flow of political information and greater engagement.

• Citizens actively produce and share political information through various online platforms.

• Digital technologies can amplify social issues like racism, sexism, and teen depression.

• Cyber-optimism views digital technologies as empowering, giving voice to marginalized communities and promoting democracy.