Chapter One

• Pluralist Theory

  • Definition: The pluralist theory argues that political power in a democracy is distributed among a wide array of diverse and competing interest groups. These groups influence public policy through negotiation and compromise.

  • Key Points:

    • Multiple Centers of Power: Unlike the elitist view, pluralism sees power as more evenly dispersed among a variety of organized groups, such as labor unions, professional associations, environmental groups, and civil rights organizations.

    • Active Public Participation: Pluralist theory suggests that citizens can influence government policies by joining or forming groups that represent their interests. It emphasizes that democratic governance allows for input from multiple segments of society.

    • Examples in Practice: Advocacy efforts by groups like the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), National Rifle Association (NRA), and grassroots movements can shape public policy and bring attention to issues that might otherwise be overlooked.

• Elitist Theory

  • Definition: The elitist theory suggests that a small group of wealthy and powerful individuals, often from corporate, military, or political backgrounds, control the majority of government decisions and policies. This theory argues that these elites are distinct from the rest of the population due to their resources, influence, and power.

  • Key Points:

    • Concentration of Power: Power is concentrated in the hands of a few individuals or organizations that have the resources to influence political outcomes.

    • Limited Public Influence: Ordinary citizens have little to no real influence on policy decisions because the elites, who are often more informed and have better access to policymakers, dominate the political landscape.

    • Examples in Practice: Campaign finance, where wealthy donors have a disproportionate influence on candidates and elections, or lobby groups that represent corporate interests, can shape legislation in ways that benefit the elite.

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Chapter Two:

• John Locke and his views on government  (you may also want to review the part of the Declaration of Independence PDF that is Locke)

  • Social Contract Theory: John Locke believed that individuals in a society consent to give up some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of a government in exchange for protection of their remaining rights.

  • Natural Rights: Locke argued that people have inherent rights, such as life, liberty, and property, that exist in the state of nature before any government is formed. The primary role of the government is to protect these natural rights.

  • Right to Overthrow: If a government fails to protect these rights or becomes tyrannical, Locke believed it should be dissolved and replaced.

• The Great Compromise

  • A blend of the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan, resulting in a bicameral legislature:

    • House of Representatives: Representation based on state population, elected by the people.

    • Senate: Each state has two senators, chosen by state legislatures.

• Amendment Process-it’s in guided reading too

  • Proposal:

    • Two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress, or

    • Two-thirds of state legislatures calling for a national convention.

  • Ratification:

    • Three-fourths of state legislatures, or

    • Conventions in three-fourths of the states.

• Checks and balances

  • A system to ensure that no single branch of government (legislative, executive, judicial) becomes too powerful. Each branch has the authority to check the powers of the others, ensuring a balance of power.

    • Legislative —> Executive

      • Official checks: approve presidential appoints, control budget, override presidential vetoes, impeach president/any executive officials (cabinet), ratify treaties

      • Other checks: Congressional oversight (hearings, investigations, audits)

    • Legislative —> Judicial

      • Can impeach/remove federal judges, approve federal judges, establish lower courts, restrict jurisdiction of courts to hear certain cases, expand/contract times and places that federal courts sit, propose amendments to override SC decisions

    • Executive —> Legislative

      • Official checks: Suggest legislation, veto legislation, call special sessions

      • Other checks: executive orders, enforcing legislation

    • Executive —> Judicial

      • Appoint judges, pardon federal offenders, enforce court decisions

    • Judicial —> Executive

      • Can declare presidential acts unconstitutional and prevent executive action through injunction, presides over impeachment trial, appointment for life means that judges are free from executive control

    • Judicial —> Legislative

      • Can declare legislation unconstitutional

• Articles of Confederation-weaknesses and overall structure

  • Structure: A confederation where the national government had limited power; most power resided with the states.

  • Weaknesses:

    • Congress could not levy taxes or regulate commerce.

    • No executive branch to enforce laws.

    • Amendments required a unanimous vote.

    • No national judiciary.

• Main arguments of Fed 10

  • Large Republics: Argues that a large republic can better guard against the dangers of faction than smaller republics.

    Factions: Acknowledges the inevitability of factions but suggests that a large republic would make it harder for any one faction to dominate.

Chapter Three

• Categorical grants 

  • Federal funds provided to states and localities for a specific purpose, often with strict guidelines on how the money is to be spent. Examples include Medicaid and the No Child Left Behind program.

• Federalism-definition and recognize examples

  • Definition: A system of government in which power is divided between a national (federal) government and various state governments.

  • Examples: U.S. has both state and federal courts; states can regulate local education, while the federal government regulates interstate commerce.

• Supremacy Clause

  • Definition: Article VI of the Constitution states that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the "supreme law of the land," taking precedence over state laws.

• Necessary and Proper Clause

  • Definition: Grants Congress the power to pass all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers. Used to justify the expansion of federal power.

• Commerce Clause

  • Definition: Grants Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native American tribes. It has been a basis for significant federal regulation.

• Concurrent Powers:  Definition, examples

  • Definition: Powers shared by both the state and federal governments.

  • Examples: Taxation, creating courts, and borrowing money.

• Examples of Devolution

  • The transfer of certain powers from the federal government back to the states. Notable during the Reagan era, where welfare programs like AFDC were shifted to block grants, allowing states more control.

• Americans with Disabilities Act as a Mandate

  • An unfunded federal mandate requiring states to make public facilities accessible to people with disabilities, illustrating federal power over states.

• Examples of Federal Power Over States

  • Imposition of mandates such as the Americans with Disabilities Act or environmental regulations; use of the Commerce Clause to regulate interstate activities.

• Examples of State Power over Federal govt.

  • States can challenge federal laws in court or refuse to enforce certain federal regulations (e.g., some states' responses to federal immigration laws).

• Block Grants 

  • Definition: Federal funds given to states for a broad purpose, allowing more discretion in how the money is spent compared to categorical grants. Examples include Community Development Block Grants.