Week_2 Sociological Theories and Methods

Week 2: Sociological Theories and Methods

• Instructor: Professor Daniela Urbina

• Institution: University of Southern California

Class Outline

• Contemporary theories about families

• Research methods in the social sciences

Recap of Prior Class

• Sociologists study the family as a social institution:

  • Examining roles, rules, and responsibilities shaping family relations

  • Analyzing important external factors influencing family change (e.g., State, Market)

  • Interactions at macro and micro levels

Contemporary Theories about Families

Definition of Theory in Social Sciences

1. A method to apply logic to observed facts

2. Structures comprehension of subjects of study

3. Provides hypotheses regarding phenomena

4. Different theories apply to diverse research questions, needing empirical testing

Group Discussion

• Discuss known social theories and the phenomena they explain

• Process of how scholars have developed explanations

Exchange Theory

• Purpose: Explains why individuals remain in familial relationships (e.g., marriages)

• Main Idea: Individuals engage in relationships to maximize personal gains

  • Evaluate costs vs benefits of arrangements

  • Lack of rewards may lead to relationship dissolution (e.g., divorce)

Critique of Exchange Theory

• Seen as naïve for assuming equal power dynamics between genders

• Emphasizes a bargaining process: unequal resources lead to unequal outcomes

Group Discussion on Exchange Theory

• Examination of household labor division

• Why do women stay in unions performing most of the housework?

  • Hypotheses suggest men do less housework due to longer paid work hours

  • Recent evidence indicates women earning more than their partners still do more housework

    • Reference: Milkie et al. (2024)

Theories of Gender

• Aim: Understand & reduce gender inequalities

• Focus on power dynamics & cultural norms sustaining inequalities in households, workplaces, and education

• Historical depth with various interpretations

• Family as a critical site for gender socialization and labor division

• Inclusion of intersections beyond binary notions of gender, addressing class and race

Example in Gender Theories

• Issue of housework division

• Persistence of traditional expectations leading women to perform more chores

• Evidence sourced from observational surveys and experiments

Modernity Theory

• Perspective on transformations from 18th-century Enlightenment to modern times

• Focus: The rise of individualization affecting social norms and freedoms

• Examples of institutionalized individualization include citizenship rights and family choices

Two Periods of Modernity Theory

1. First Modernity (Until 1960s): Gradual changes in family behaviors (e.g., divorce rates, marriage age), maintaining traditional family concepts

2. Second Modernity: Rapid changes towards individualization leading to diverse family forms (e.g., cohabitation, same-sex relationships)

   • Individualization impacts families positively and negatively

Research Methods for Studying Families

Importance of Empirical Research

• Sociological study requires data collection and empirical analysis

1. Define research question

2. Build hypotheses based on existing theories/evidence

3. Collect and analyze data

4. Evaluate hypotheses against findings

Tools Used in Sociology

• Broad range of quantitative and qualitative methods:

  • Surveys, census data, document/media analysis, interviews, and ethnography

Surveys as a Research Method

Sample Surveys

• Method involves asking identical questions to different individuals

• Cost-effective alternative to surveying entire populations

• Random sampling critical for valid results

Longitudinal Surveys

• Measure responses of same individuals over time

• Useful for identifying social change over periods

  • Example: Changes in attitudes towards premarital sex from 1972 to 2021

In-depth Interviews and Ethnography

• Allow for comprehensive understanding beyond surface-level surveys

• Fewer but detailed responses enhance qualitative data

• Example: Annette Lareau's ethnographic work on parenting in American families

Trade-offs in Research Methods

• Each method's effectiveness varies with research goals

Comparisons

• Surveys (Census, Representative, Longitudinal):

  • Strengths: Generalizability, capacity for causal claims

  • Weaknesses: Limited question flexibility, shallow analysis

• Interviews and Ethnography:

  • Strengths: In-depth exploration, new insights

  • Weaknesses: Non-representative samples

Challenges in Research

Correlation vs Causation

1. Understanding that correlation does not imply causation

2. Example illustrates misleading interpretations of data (nearsightedness and light exposure)

3. Causal claims require rigorous counterfactual analysis

Research Bias

• Bias can cloud the interpretation of data

• Mitigation strategies: transparency, peer review, and sharing research processes

Summary

• Sociologists employ various theories (e.g., exchange, gender, modernity) to study family dynamics

• Research methods vary in suitability, with distinct strengths and weaknesses

• Challenges such as correlation vs causation and bias necessitate critical evaluation in sociological research

Next Week's Focus

• Family Change in Historical Context

  • Examining Pre-modern and Modern Families.