46 - The Widening Struggle for Civil Rights

Expansion of Civil Rights Movement

• Dolores Huerta and United Farm Workers

  • Dolores Huerta co-founded the United Farm Workers with César Chávez in the late 1960s, advocating for Latino, women, and workers' rights.

  • Huerta's shift from teaching to organizing farmworkers stemmed from witnessing their hardships and desiring more impactful assistance.

  • The National Farm Workers Association (NFWA), later merging into the United Farm Workers (UFW), achieved a significant victory in 1966 by securing a collective bargaining agreement with the Schenley Wine Company.

  • Huerta's activism extended beyond farmworkers to advocate for Latinos and women's rights.

• Diversification of Civil Rights Movement

  • Various marginalized groups, inspired by the Black civil rights movement, began advocating for their rights in the 1950s and 1960s.

  • Women, Latinos, Indigenous Americans, Asian Americans, Americans with disabilities, LGBT Americans, and older Americans joined the struggle for equality.

  • The civil rights movement expanded to encompass a broader spectrum of Americans seeking equal treatment and rights.

Women's Rights Movement

• Striving for Equality

  • Women, inspired by civil rights movements, initiated the women's rights movement to combat discrimination and seek equal rights.

  • Betty Friedan's book 'The Feminine Mystique' highlighted women's discontent and the desire for more fulfilling roles beyond traditional domestic duties.

  • The gender wage gap and limited professional opportunities for women in the 1960s spurred the fight for workplace equality.

  • The National Organization for Women (NOW) organized impactful events like the Women's Strike for Equality to demand equal rights and opportunities for women.

• Equal Rights Amendment and Opposition

  • The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) aimed to ensure gender equality under the law but faced opposition due to fears of devaluing traditional roles and mandatory military service for women.

  • Efforts to ratify the ERA fell short of the required states by the 1982 deadline, despite significant progress in women's education and professional pursuits.

  • Phyllis Schlafly emerged as a prominent opponent of the ERA, arguing against its potential societal impacts and traditional family values.

• Educational Advancements

  • Between 1969-1973, women law students quadrupled, and medical students doubled.

  • By 1997, women were the majority in colleges and earned most master's degrees.

  • Federal legislation like Title IX in 1972 supported women's educational opportunities.

  • Title IX prohibited sex-based discrimination in schools receiving federal funds.

• Reproductive Rights

  • The birth control pill, approved in 1960, gave women greater reproductive control.

  • Supreme Court rulings in 1965 and 1973 granted privacy rights for birth control and abortion.

  • Controversy arose over abortion rights, with opponents citing life at conception.

  • In 2022, the Roe v. Wade decision was reversed, returning abortion regulation to states.

Latino Rights Movement

• Diversity and Discrimination

  • Latino populations include Mexican Americans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and others.

  • Discrimination in the 1960s included employment and educational barriers.

  • Mexican Americans reclaimed the term 'Chicano' for cultural pride.

  • Cuban Americans, mainly in Florida, differed in education and affluence.

• Activism and Achievements

  • César Chávez led the United Farm Workers' grape boycott for improved worker conditions.

  • Chávez utilized nonviolent tactics, including hunger strikes, for labor rights.

  • La Raza Unida political party emerged in 1970, advocating for Chicano rights.

  • Bilingual education and activism addressed discrimination against Spanish-speaking students.

Indigenous Rights Movement

• American Indian Movement (AIM)

  • Formed in 1968 to address police harassment and disproportionate Indigenous incarceration.

  • AIM monitored police activities and reduced Indigenous people's arrests in Minneapolis.

  • Indigenous Americans come from diverse tribes and nations.

  • AIM's actions led to a 60% decrease in Indigenous people in Minneapolis jails.

Struggles of Indigenous Americans

• Common Identity and Struggles

  • Indigenous Americans from various tribes asserted a shared identity as native peoples despite differing customs and living conditions.

  • They faced severe economic hardship, with an unemployment rate 10 times higher than the national average and lower average family income compared to African Americans.

  • The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 aimed to ensure equality but had limited impact, leading to continued inequality and lack of opportunities.

  • Many Indigenous Americans lived in poverty, with significantly lower life expectancy than the national average.

• Activism and Movements

  • In 1969, Indigenous activists occupied Alcatraz Island, demanding ownership, funding for an Indigenous university, and cultural center.

  • AIM organized the Trail of Broken Treaties protest in 1972, advocating for Indigenous rights and control over reservations.

  • AIM protesters occupied Wounded Knee in 1973, demanding reform in reservation governance and honoring of treaties, leading to a violent confrontation with the FBI.

  • The Longest Walk protest in 1978 highlighted the forced displacement of Indigenous people from their lands.

• Legal and Legislative Victories

  • The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 increased federal funding for Indigenous education and granted more control over reservations.

  • Legal victories included the return of Blue Lake to the Taos Pueblo tribe and the Alaska Native Land Claims Settlement Act of 1971.

  • AIM's efforts brought national attention to Indigenous rights and led to some reforms, instilling hope for a more just future.

Asian American Struggles and Activism

• Diversity and Immigration

  • Asian Americans, including Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, and Koreans, faced immigration restrictions until the Immigration Act of 1965.

  • Increased immigration from countries like India, Vietnam, and Cambodia diversified the Asian American population.

  • The 'model minority' stereotype portrayed Asian Americans as successful and hardworking, but this perception was not universally true.

• Challenges and Activism

  • Asian American activists, like Larry Itliong, played key roles in civil rights movements, including the California farmworkers' strike.

  • Asian American students demanded equal rights in the 1960s, leading to strikes for increased minority participation in university affairs and the establishment of ethnic studies programs.

  • Discrimination based on race affected many Asian Americans, despite the 'model minority' label.

Asian American Rights Movement

• Establishment of Ethnic Studies Programs

  • In 1969, San Francisco State established the first school of ethnic studies in the US.

  • Between 1968 and 1973, many colleges and universities founded Asian American studies programs.

  • Impact on Identity: Students like Helen Zia discovered their heritage and gained a new understanding of their identity and rights in American society.

• Fight for Internment Reparations

  • Japanese American internment during WWII led to demands for reparations.

  • Japanese Americans in the 1970s, inspired by the Black Power movement, spoke out against discrimination.

  • Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) pursued legal reparations, leading to Congress' apology and $20,000 reparations per survivor.

Disability Rights Movement

• Advocacy and Legislation

  • Disability-rights activists demanded equal rights and opportunity in the 1970s.

  • Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 brought major reforms for people with disabilities.

  • Ed Roberts' activism at UC Berkeley and the establishment of programs for students with disabilities.

• Legislation and Impact

  • Rehabilitation Act of 1973 granted equal access to federally funded programs for people with disabilities.

  • Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 mandated inclusive education for children with disabilities.

  • Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 improved public access and education, though employment equality remains a challenge.

• Rehabilitation Act of 1973

  • Passed in 1973, the Rehabilitation Act aimed to grant equal access to federally funded programs for individuals with disabilities.

  • Section 504 of the Act prohibited discrimination based on disability in programs receiving Federal financial assistance.

  • Enforcement of the Act was delayed until 1977, prompted by protests by individuals with disabilities.

  • The Act set the stage for equal access for people with disabilities in various spheres.

• Education for All Handicapped Children Act

  • Enacted in 1975, this Act mandated the education of children with disabilities in the least restrictive environment possible.

  • It promoted mainstreaming, integrating students with disabilities into classrooms with non-disabled peers.

  • Significantly improved educational opportunities for children with disabilities.

  • Set a new standard for inclusive education.

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

  • Passed in 1990, the ADA aimed to enhance public access for individuals with disabilities.

  • Called for improvements like braille signs in public spaces and increased transportation accessibility.

  • Focused on improving education for children with disabilities.

  • Despite advancements, employment equality for individuals with disabilities remains a challenge.

LGBT and Older Americans Civil Rights Movements

• LGBT Rights Movement

  • Emergence in the 1960s: LGBT community demanded equal rights amidst discrimination and harassment.

  • Stonewall riots of 1969 marked a turning point, leading to annual LGBT pride events worldwide.

  • Expansion and Landmarks: PFLAG formation, Harvey Milk's election, and ongoing activism.

• Older Americans Advocacy

  • Gray Panthers fought age-based discrimination, leading to the extension of the mandatory retirement age.

  • Maggie Kuhn and Philadelphia retirees formed the Gray Panthers in 1972 to combat unfair treatment of older Americans.

LGBT Rights Movement

• Stonewall Riots and Gay Rights Movement

  • Stonewall riots in 1969 marked a pivotal moment in the gay rights movement.

  • Stonewall riots in 1969 marked a pivotal moment in the gay rights movement.

  • Annual LGBT pride events commemorate the Stonewall riots.

  • Catalyzed demands for equal rights and an end to discrimination.

• Harvey Milk and PFLAG

  • Harvey Milk, elected in 1977, was the first openly gay official in a major U.S. city.

  • PFLAG, formed in 1980, advocated for the rights of LGBT individuals and their families.

  • Highlighted the importance of family support for LGBT individuals.

  • Played a significant role in advancing LGBT rights.

Older Americans' Rights Advocacy

• Gray Panthers and Age Discrimination

  • Gray Panthers, founded in 1972, fought against age-based discrimination.

  • Coined the term 'ageism' to describe discrimination based on age.

  • Advocated for extending the mandatory retirement age from 65 to 70.

  • Focused on combating unfair treatment of older Americans.

• AARP and Healthcare Advocacy

  • AARP, established in 1958, aimed to provide health insurance for retirees.

  • Lobbied for Medicare, leading to its establishment in 1965.

  • Addressed the lack of health coverage for older Americans.

  • Played a crucial role in securing healthcare benefits for seniors.