Ch 9 psyc

Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion

9.1 Overview

• Theories of Motivation

• Hunger and Eating

• Sexual Behaviors

• Social Needs

• Theories of Emotion

• Culture and Emotion

• Gender and Emotion

• Controlling Emotions

9.2 Theories of Motivation

• Motivation: Initiates, activates, or maintains goal-directed behaviors.

• Types of Theories:

  • Drive Theories

  • Arousal Theory

  • Cognitive Theories

  • Humanistic Theories

  • Evolutionary Theory

9.3 Drive Theories of Motivation

• We are driven by needs that aid survival (e.g., hunger prompts eating).

• Drive: Aroused condition that directs us to satisfy a need.

• Need: State of physiological imbalance accompanied by arousal.

• Goal: Achieving homeostasis (steady state).

• Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory (1940s/1950s): Explains physiologically-based behaviors (e.g., eating/drinking).

9.4 Miller’s Conflict Theory

• Conflicts arise from competing drives.

• Types of Conflict:

  • Approach/Approach: Choose between two desirable options (e.g., vacation spots).

  • Avoidance/Avoidance: Choose between two undesirable options (e.g., surgery vs. radiation).

  • Approach/Avoidance: One option has both positive and negative aspects (e.g., dream job with lower pay).

  • Criticism: Over-simplifies complex human behavior.

9.5 Arousal Theory of Motivation

• Arousal: Physical activation includes the CNS, autonomic nervous system, muscles, and glands.

• Behaviors aim to maintain optimum arousal levels through environmental stimuli.

  • Examples: Low arousal leads to seeking stimulation (e.g., club); high arousal leads to rest (e.g., sleep).

• Donald Hebb (1950s): Optimal human functioning at a specific arousal level.

• Yerkes-Dodson Principle: Performance varies with task difficulty; moderate/high arousal is ideal for easy tasks, lower arousal for difficult tasks.

9.6 Cognitive Theories of Motivation

• Motivation stems from thought processes that determine goals and ways to achieve them.

• Expectancy Theories: Expectations influence goal attainment.

  • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Various motivations affect task success. The overjustification effect shows intrinsic motivation decreases when extrinsic rewards are introduced.

9.7 Humanistic Theories of Motivation

• Focus on dignity, choice, and self-worth.

• Contextualizes behavior in relation to environment and personal values.

• Abraham Maslow (1970): Motivation driven by the pursuit of beauty, truth, harmony; self-actualization is the highest psychological developmental goal.

9.8 Evolutionary Theory of Motivation

• Charles Darwin: Instinctual fixed behavior patterns explain motivations across species.

• Motivation and emotion are intertwined; emotions prioritize behaviors.

• Critics question the classification of many human behaviors as instincts.

9.9 Hunger and Eating

• Hunger satisfies biological needs with cultural influence.

• Physiological Factors:

  • Homeostasis - energy intake/output balance.

  • Weight set point theory is questioned; multi-hormonal hunger regulation involves insulin, leptin, ghrelin, and peptide YY.

  • The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in hunger signals.

9.10 Environmental Factors in Eating

• Cues often prompt eating before energy deficiency (e.g., time cues like dinner time).

• Family, peers, and cultural influences shape food preferences.

• Marketing impacts youth, especially overweight children.

9.11 Cultural and Learning Factors in Eating

• Cultural norms define desirable and forbidden foods.

• Learning Factors:

  • Classical Conditioning: Foods linked to positive experiences become more appealing.

  • Operant Conditioning: Foods as rewards influence future preferences.

9.12 Obesity

• Increasing obesity rates since the 1960s; nearly 40% adults and 18.5% youth in the U.S. are affected.

• Causes are multifactorial: genetics, metabolism, energy availability, dietary patterns, exercise levels.

9.13 Sexual Behaviors

• Influenced by both biological and psychological/social factors.

• The hypothalamus and hormones are critical in establishing sex drive and behaviors.

9.14 Psychological Influences on Human Sexuality

• Human sexuality is largely shaped by psychological factors like experiences, goals, emotions, values, and cultural contexts.

9.15 Alfred Kinsey's Research

• Conducted influential sexual behavior surveys in the 1940s/1950s.

  • Examined sexual exploration beginning in childhood.

  • Gender differences in sexual experience have diminished over time.

9.16 Kinsey Scale of Sexual Behavior

• Ranges from exclusive heterosexual to exclusive homosexual behavior, with gradations in between.

9.17 General Findings on Modern Sexuality

• Married individuals engage in sex more than single individuals; minimized sex differences.

• Frequency may decline with age, but many older adults maintain active sexual lives.

• Trends in teenage sexual behavior reflect cultural shifts and influence pregnancy rates.

9.18 Masters & Johnson's Research

• Pioneered observational research with a four-phase sexual response cycle:

  • Excitement: Initial arousal phase.

  • Plateau: Sustained arousal phase.

  • Orgasm: Peak arousal.

  • Resolution: Return to baseline state; refractory period in males.

9.19 Sexual Orientation

• Describes the direction of sexual interest. Kinsey noted a spectrum of sexual orientation.

• Recent estimations for non-heterosexual orientations indicate lower prevalence compared to earlier reports.

• Cultural acceptance of non-heterosexuality varies, affecting mental health outcomes.

9.20 Social Needs in Motivation

• Need for Achievement:

  • Learned through parental influences and cultural factors.

  • Self-efficacy plays a role in mastering tasks.

• Need for Affiliation: Ties to survival and social acceptance; seeking support enhances coping strategies and life satisfaction.

9.21 Theories of Emotion

• Emotion: A subjective response with physiological arousal leading to behavioral changes.

• Three main theories:

  • Physiological

  • Evolutionary

  • Cognitive

9.22 Physiological Theories of Emotion

• Emotions arise from brain function and sympathetic nervous system response; various emotions can appear similar physically.

  • James-Lange Theory: Physiological changes occur first, followed by emotional interpretation.

  • Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

9.23 Evolutionary Theories of Emotion

• Certain emotions prepare humans to react to stimuli; emotions derived from physiological responses.

9.24 Cognitive Theories of Emotion

• Cognitive appraisal influences emotional experiences.

  • Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Emotional experience is enhanced by cognitive labeling of physiological arousal.

9.25 Culture and Emotion

• Cultural backgrounds influence emotion intensity and expressions.

  • Collectivist Cultures: Emphasize social relationships over individual expressions.

  • Individualist Cultures: Focus on individual emotions, linking self-esteem with personal happiness.

9.26 Gender and Emotion

• Stereotypes affect emotional expressions.

  • Women may suppress anger; men may suppress sadness and fear.

• Gender display rules shape emotional expression.

9.27 Controlling Emotions

• Emotional regulation involves altering emotional expressions through cognitive therapy and understanding that emotional experiences can be trained and changed.