Old Material

Psychology 101:04

Spring 2025

Final Exam Study Guide - Old Material

This is intended to be a guide only.  

Research Methods

1. What is an operational definition?

   1. The precise description of how a concept or variable will be measured and observed in a particular study 

2. What is a case study?

   1. In-depth analysis of one subject, a study of a particular phenomenon, situation, or group

3. Survey Method

   1. Performing an experience based on constructed questions given to someone

   2. Allowing them to gather information about a larger population by studying a representative sample 

4. Observation method

   1. A researcher observes and records the behavior of participants without actively manipulating or interfering with their actions.

      1. Observe the behavior of parents dropping off their kids 

5. Correlational method

   1. Measures the strength and direction of relationships between variables

6. Experimental methods?

   1. The researcher changes one variable and measures the effect of that change on another variable. 

7. What is random sampling?

   1. A method of selecting participants for a study where every individual from the population has an equal chance of being chosen 

8. What are positive and negative correlations?

   1. Variable charge in the same direction (positive correlations)

   2. Variables charge in opposite directions (negative correlation ions)

9. Does correlation indicate causation? 

   1. Does not indicate causation 

   2. C could also cause A and B

10. What is a random assignment?

    1. People are chosen at random to get different parts of the experiment. 

11. What are IVs and DVs?

    1. Independent Variables: manipulated by the experimenter. Independent variables aren't affected by any other variables that the study measures.

    2. Dependent Variables: outcome variable. The dependent variable is sometimes called the “response,” the “symptoms”, or the “outcome”. The dependent variable is often the focus of the research study. 

12. What is experimental control?

    1. Factors other than the Independent Variable (IV) are changing, and this could affect the DV.

13. What is a confound (confounding variable)?

    1. The variables that are potentially responsible for the results are not the variables of interest

    2. a third variable, not being directly studied, that influences both the independent and dependent variables in a research study, potentially distorting the observed relationship between them and making it difficult to accurately interpret the results

14. What is generalizability?

    1. The extent to which the results of a study can be applied to a broader population or different situations beyond the specific sample studied.

The Biology of Behavior

15. What is the myelin sheath?

    1. A protective cover around the axon of a neuron helps send messages faster

16. What is the action potential?

    1. An electrical signal that travels along the axon to send a message is the on switch that tells the neurons to send messages.

17. What is a synapse?

    1. A tiny gap between two neurons, like a bridge that lets messages jump from one neuron to the next

18. What are neurotransmitters?

    1. The chemical that is the message

    2. a chemical messenger that carries signals between nerve cells

    3. What are endorphins?

       1. Reduce pain and promote pleasure.

       2. Pain medication, or when you rung a while, it doesn't hurt

    4. Dopamine

       1. Involved in voluntary movement, reward, and learning, memory

       2. Someone with Parkinson's disease can't stop moving their hands

    5. Serotonin

       1. Inhibitory signal

       2. Involved in sleep, appetite mood

    6. Epinephrine?

       1. Excitatory signal

       2. Involved in stress response

       3. Fight or flight response (your adrenaline)

19. What are agonists and antagonists?

    1. Increase the normal activity of a neurotransmitter: agonist

    2. Decreased activity of a neurotransmitter: antagonists

20. What are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

    1. Sympathetic nervous system: Increases physiological arousal (S for stress)

    2. Parasympathetic nervous system: decreases arousal (P for peace)

21. What is the endocrine system?  

    1. A network of glands that produce and release hormones into the bloodstream, acting as chemical messenger to regulate various body functions

    2. What are the pituitary and adrenal glands?

       1. What is the pituitary gland?

          1. Master gland

          2. Growth 

          3. metabolism

       2. What are the adrenal glands?

          1. Important in mood, energy level, stress response

          2. Stress hormones 

          3. adrenaline

22. What are the EEG and fMRI?

    1. Electroencephalogram (EEG)

       1. Detect electrical activity of neurons in particular regions of the brain

       2. To detect tumors and seizures

       3. Measures the activity of the surface of the brain, doesn’t take pictures of the brain,n records the brain activity

    2. fMRI

       1. Uses MRI to measure the relative activity of various brain areas during a task

       2. When inside, they showed different colored objects, and they showed the brain activity when showing different pictures, and were able to make a 3d picture of the brain and how it responds to certain things.

23. What is the brainstem?

    1. Medulla: The bottom part of your brainstem that regulates your breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, and swallowing.

    2. Pons: The middle portion of your brainstem that coordinates face and eye movements, facial sensations, hearing, and balance. 

24. What is the amygdala?

    1. Emotion aggression fear

25. What is the hippocampus?

    1. The gateway to memory helps with learning and spatial navigation

    2. Enable the formation of new conscious memories

26. What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex (e.g., frontal lobe)?

    1. Frontal 

    2. Partinetal

    3. Occipital

    4. temporal

    5. What are mirror neurons?

       1. Fire when observing another person doing something

    6. What are the somatosensory and motor cortices?

       1. What is the sensory (somatosensory) cortex?

          1. Receives information about touch sensation

       2. What is the motor cortex?

          1. Voluntary movement

27. What is plasticity?

    1. Flexibility of brain structures

Brain States and Consciousness

28. What are attentional blindness and change blindness?

    1. In attention blindness, failing to detect available stimuli due to selective attention

    2. Change blindness: failing to detect a change in stimuli due to selective attention

29. How does light affect the SCN, and how are the pineal gland and melatonin involved in our sleep-wake cycle?

    1. The pineal gland creates melatonin , more sleepy

    2. Melatonin: a hormone that makes us tired

    3. Light determines what will be produced more melatonin or not

30. What is REM sleep?  What happens during REM sleep (e.g., sleep paralysis)?

    1. Rapid eye movement sleep

    2. Brain waves resemble wakefulness 

    3. Eyes move back and forth

    4. What is the meaning of “paradoxical sleep?”

       1. Paradoxical sleep is another name for rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, a sleep stage when the brain is active but the body is sleeping..

    5. What is sleep paralysis? A psychological phenomenon that occurs when your mind wakes up while your body is still paralyzed. It can happen when you’re falling asleep or waking up.

31. What are the 3 stages of N-REM sleep?  When is growth hormone released from the pituitary gland?

    1. What is N-REM sleep? 

       1. Non-rapid eye movement sleep is a restful phase of sleep that helps the body repair itself, build muscle, and strengthen the immune system..

       2. What is N1?

          1. Light sleep

          2. What is a hypnagogic jerk?

             1. You feel like you are falling..

          3. What is a hypnagogic hallucination?

             1. You think you hear something or see something that is not there

    2. What is N2?

       1. True sleep

       2. Brain activity slows and muscle tension too

    3. What is N3?  What happens during N3?

       1. Deep sleep

       2. Future slowing of brain activity

       3. Hard to awaken

Developing Through the Lifespan

32. What was Piaget’s approach to cognitive development?  

    1. Children make constant mental adaptations to new observations and experiences.

    2. What are assimilation and accommodation?

       1. Assimilation: fitting new information into the present system of knowledge

          1. For example, a child may learn a new type of dog but still think of it as a "dog," applying their schema for dogs to this new example.

       2. Accommodation: as a result of new information, change the existing schema

          1. If the child sees an animal that doesn't fit the dog schema, they might modify their concept of animals to include other categories, like "cats."

    3. What are Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development (e.g., sensorimotor)?

       1. Sensorimotor

          1. Birth to 2 years

             1. Understanding that something continues to exist even when it cannot be seen

       2. Preoperational

          1. Ages 2-7

          2. What is egocentrism?

             1. Viewing the world only from one's perspective

          3. What is animistic thinking?

             1. Attribute lifelike qualities to inanimate objects..

4. What is conservation?

   1. Understanding that physical properties do not change when appearance changes.

3. Concrete operational

   1. Ages 7-11

   2. What is reversibility?

      1. The idea is that the stimulus that has been changed can return to its original state.

   3. What is transitivity?

      1. Understanding how components in a series are related

4. Formal operational

   1. Age 11-adulthood

33. What is Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

    1. Cognitive development results from guidance

       1. Children learn and develop through guided interactions with more knowledgeable individuals (like parents, teachers, or peers)

    2. What is the zone of proximal development?

       1. The Level at which a child can almost perform a task independently but still needs support

    3. What is scaffolding? The teacher adjusts the amount of support to the children's level of development

34. What is the theory of mind?

    1.   Understand how other people think.

35. What is Erik Erikson’s stage theory of social development?  What is the basic challenge in each of the 8 stages (e.g., trust vs. mistrust)?

    1. Trust vs. mistrust

       1. Birth 1 year 

       2. Trust allows the formation of intimate relationships 

          1. When infants receive consistent care and love, they develop a sense of trust in their caregivers and the world

       3. Mistrust: difficulties forming secure relationships later in life

          1. If care is inconsistent or neglectful, infants may develop mistrust

    2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

       1. Ages 1-3

       2. Autonomy: independence, self-control

          1. Toddlers begin to assert their independence and develop a sense of self-control, such as learning to walk, make choices, and potty train.

       3. Shame and doubt: lack of confidence in their independence

          1. If caregivers are overly controlling or critical, children may develop feelings of shame or doubt in their abilities

    3. Initiative vs. guilt

       1. Ages 3-5 

       2. Initiative: Encouragement leads to a sense of confidence in their abilities.

          1. Preschoolers begin to take initiative, exploring their environment and deciding

       3. Guilt: Hesitates to try new things

          1. If children’s initiatives are frequently dismissed or punished, they may develop feelings of guilt.

    4. Industry vs. inferiority

       1. Ages 6-11

          1. Industry: Children develop a sense of competence and achievement as they succeed in school, social interactions, and extracurricular activities.

          2. Inferiority: Children fail to develop a sense of competence (due to failure or lack of support), and they may feel inferior or incapable.

    5. Identity vs. confusion (5th stage)

       1. 12-18 years old

       2. Adolescent explore their sense of self and personal identity 

       3. A stable sense of who one is and what one's values or identity are 

    6. Intimacy vs. isolation

       1. Ages 18- 20s

       2. Establish enduring, committed relationships

    7. Generativity vs. stagnation

       1. 30s-50s

       2. Goal: making the world a better place: generative

       3. People feel stuck / life is meaningless: stagnation

    8. Integrity vs. despair

       1. 60s+

       2. Ego integrity: feeling that one's life has coherence and purpose

       3. Despair: disappointment, regret

36. What were the results of Harlow’s studies of infant attachment? The emotional bond between an infant and another person

    1. Contact comfort (the need for physical closeness and comfort)

       1. Rhesus monkeys- clothed with no food vs not clothed with food

37. How did Mary Ainsworth study attachment?  

    1. Mary Ainsworth studied attachment by observing infants’ reactions to a series of separations and reunions with their caregiver in a lab setting called the Strange Situation. Based on the infants’ behaviors, she identified different attachment styles—secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant—reflecting the quality of their bond with the caregiver.

38. What are secure

    1. caregiver or environment that provides emotional support and stability, allowing a child to feel safe to explore, knowing they can return to the caregiver for comfort when needed.

39. Insecure-avoidant

    1. These children tend to avoid their caregiver after separation, as they may have learned that their emotional needs won’t be met.

       1. They often act independently and seem uninterested in seeking comfort.

40. Insecure-anxious/ambivalent attachment styles?

    1. These children become very distressed when separated from their caregiver and may show clinginess or difficulty exploring.

       1. They often feel uncertain if their caregiver will respond to their needs consistently.

41. What are Baumrind’s 4 parenting styles (e.g., authoritarian)?  

    1. Authoritative

       1. High warmth, high control

       2. Child-centered, what the kid needs, is not what the parent needs

    2. Authoritarian:

       1. Low warmth, high control

       2. High standard, emphasis on obedience, say no because I said so

    3. Permissive:

       1. High warmth, low control

       2. Show a lot of affection to their kid,  and a minimal standard, easy-going

    4. Uninvolved

       1. Low warmth, low control

       2. Not present physically or emotionally, sometimes they are present, those who struggle with addiction..

42. What are Kohlberg’s 3 stages of moral development (e.g., preconventional)? 

    1.  Preconventional morality:

       1. Based on external consequences like punishment or reward

       2. Children focus on avoiding punishment or gaining rewards

    2. Conventional morality:

       1. Based on conforming to social norms or rules. 

       2. Individuals seek to gain approval by following the laws

    3. Postconventional morality:

       1. Based on abstract principles like justice and equality

       2. Individuals recognize the importance of social contracts

43. What is the delay of gratification?  What was Mischel’s (1961) “marshmallow test?”

    1. Delay of gratification: The ability to forego smaller, immediate rewards for greater rewards later

    2. The marshmallow test: choice of 1 marshmallow now or 2 in a few minutes  It tested self-control and was linked to future success in various areas, such as academic achievement and emotional regulation.

Sensation and Perception

44. What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing?

    1. Bottom-up: build learning with sensory data

    2. Top-down: you can look down on everything you know

    3. Both of these are two different ways of making sense of a stimulus (a thing or event that provokes an action)

45. What are absolute thresholds?

    1. Minimal amount of stimulation that can be detected half of the time (the lowest amount you can hear)

46. What are the different thresholds (the JND)?

    1. The smallest difference in intensity between 2 stimuli that a person can detect

    2. You can notice the difference in the brightness of two lights or the weight of two objects.

    3. What is Weber’s law (fraction)?

       1. 2 stimuli to be perceived as different in intensity, the second must differ from the first by a constant proportion

47. What is signal detection theory? 

    1. How humans make a decision based on a stimulus and their physical and mental state

       1. If a car brakes, the brake lights are a stimulus. However, if a person were driving on a foggy road at night, that same stimulus would cause a more dramatic reaction.

    2. Perception results from both sensory information and judgment

    3. Things can distract you from detecting things

48. What is sensory adaptation?

    1. Our sensory receptors become less sensitive to constant or unchanging stimuli over time.e

    2. Example: You enter a room with a strong smell, you may notice it at first, but after a few minutes, you no longer perceive the odor as strongly

49. What is the Gestalt approach (overall – not specific principles such as figure-ground)?

    1. We perceive objects as whole rather than a sum of individual parts

    2. What is figure-ground perception?

       1. we inherently distinguish between objects and background

50. What is perceptual constancy?

    1. To perceive the color of an object as consistent even when lighting conditions change

Classical Conditioning

51. What is classical conditioning?

    1. Learning to respond to a new stimulus that has been associated with another stimulus that normally produces the response 

52. How did Pavlov study classical conditioning?

    1. Pavlov studied classical conditioning with dogs. He observed that dogs salivated in response to food (unconditioned stimulus), and after pairing a neutral stimulus (like a bell) with the food repeatedly, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone. This demonstrated that a neutral stimulus can trigger a conditioned response when associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

53. Unconditioned response:

    1. The automatic or natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

       1. Example: salivation when food is presented.

54. unconditioned stimulus

    1. A stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned response

       1. Example: Food

55. conditioned response

    1. The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

       1. Example: salivation in response to the bell

56. conditioned stimulus

    1. A neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response

       1. Example: the bell, which after conditioning, causes salivation

57. What is generalization?

    1. Conditioned response to stimuli that are not the conditioned stimuli but are similar to the CS

       1. One dog bites you, so you get scared of all dogs

58. What is discrimination?

    1. A conditioned response occurs only to a specific stimulus

       1. One dog bites you, so you are afraid of that dog, but don’t have a fear of dogs, so you pet the next dog

59. What is extinction?

    1. Failure to exhibit the CR of the CS because the CS no longer predicts the US

       1. If the bell is repeatedly sounded without the food being presented, the dog will gradually stop salivating. The conditioned response (salivation) diminishes and eventually disappears. This is extinction.

60. What was Watson and Raynor’s study with Little Albert?

    1. The baby was not scared of the rat, but when they showed the rat again and scared the baby with a loud noise and did it over and over again, the baby learned that rat = scared and loud noise, causing the baby to be scared of the rat. The baby generalized because now it is afraid of anything fuzzy, like a rat. 

61. What is counterconditioning?

    1. Replacing unwanted CR with wanted response.

       1. The kid learns fear of rabbits is a form of extinction. To making the kid get over its fear they show a nice rabbit to make him not scared this would not work because if the rabbit scares him again, the kid's fear would come back..

       2. Instead, they try a different approach and let the kid eat cookies while also having the rabbit move closer to them until they connect, seeing a rabbit and eating cookies. They try to make a happy reaction slowly to overpower the fear. 

Operant Conditioning

62. What is operant conditioning?

    1. Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is shaped by the consequences that follow it. In other words, behaviors that are followed by positive outcomes tend to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated. This theory was developed by B.F. Skinner, and it emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior.

63. What is a Skinner box? 

    1. A Skinner box (or operant conditioning chamber) is a device developed by B.F. Skinner studiedthe behavior of animals (typically pigeons or rats) under controlled conditions. Inside the box, animals could perform actions like pressing a lever or pecking a key, and they would receive a reward (like food) or punishment (like a mild electric shock) as a consequence. Skinner used this setup to study how reinforcement and punishment affected the likelihood of specific behaviors being repeated.

    2. Being rewarded or shocked for different behaviors 

64. What is shaping? 

    1. Reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response

       1. Successive approximations

          1. Responses that are increasingly similar to the desired response

             1. A child does something, they get a reward they keep doing the action until no reward is needed for them to behave that way

65. Reinforcements:

    1.  A consequence of behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur

    2. Example: a child getting candy every time they do well on an exam

66. Punishment: A consequence of behavior that decreases the probability that the behavior will occur

    1. A child loses their phone after doing poorly on an exam

67. Positive reinforcement

    1.  The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior increases the probability of the behavior. 

       1. A teacher gives a student a sticker every time they complete their homework on time. The student is likely to continue completing homework on time to earn more stickers.

68. Negative reinforcement

    1.  The removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior increases the probability of the behavior.

       1. A student turns off their alarm clock after waking up. The removal of the annoying sound (the unpleasant stimulus) encourages the student to continue turning off the alarm when it goes off.

69. Positive punishment

    1.  An unpleasant stimulus that follows behavior decreases the probability of the behavior.r 

       1. A child is given extra chores for yelling at their sibling. The addition of the unpleasant consequence (extra chores) decreases the likelihood that the child will yell again.

70. Negative punishment

    1. The removal of pleasant stimuli after a behavior decreases the probability of the behavior.

       1.  A parent takes away a child's video game privileges for not doing their homework. Removing the pleasurable activity (video games) decreases the likelihood of the child not completing homework.

71. What are continuous and intermittent (partial) reinforcement? Which is better for initial and long-term learning?

    1. Continuous reinforcement

       1.  Reinforcement consequences are the same each time the behavior occurs 

          1. Children receive praise every time they do their homework, leading them to complete their homework on time.

    2. Intermittent partial reinforcement

       1. The behavior might get rewarded at unpredictable or set intervals. Because the reinforcement is unpredictable, it can make the behavior more persistent and resistant to extinction (i.e., it’s harder to stop the behavior once it’s learned).

72. What are the schedules of reinforcement (fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval)?

    1. Fixed-ratio

       1. Reinforcement for a fixed proportion of responses emitted

          1. A worker gets a bonus after producing 10 units of work. The reinforcement (bonus) occurs after a set number of actions (10 units).

    2. Variable-ratio

       1. The reward is for some percentage of responses, but the unpredictable number of responses required before reinforcement.

          1. A person plays a slot machine, and they receive a payout after an unpredictable number of pulls. The reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses.

    3. Fixed-interval

       1. Reinforcement for responses after a fixed amount of time

          1. A teacher gives a quiz every Friday, and students are reinforced with praise if they do well. The reinforcement (praise) is given after a fixed period (one week).

    4. Variable-interval

       1. Reinforcement for responses after an amount of time that is not constant

          1. Check your email for new messages. Sometimes you get a new message right away, sometimes it takes longer. The reinforcement (new message) occurs after varying time intervals.

73. What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?  What is the overjustification effect?

    1. Intrinsic motivation

       1. Pursuit of activity for its own sake 

          1. A person plays the piano simply because they enjoy making music and feel fulfilled doing so.

    2. Extrinsic motivation 

       1. Pursuit of a goal for external reward

          1. A student studies hard to earn a scholarship or a high grade to avoid disappointing their parents.

    3. Overjustification effect

       1. Too much reward undermines intrinsic motivation

          1. A child who initially enjoys drawing may lose interest if they are rewarded with money every time they draw. The external reward may diminish their intrinsic enjoyment of the activity. 

Observational Learning

74. What is observational learning?  

    1. Learning by observing the behavior of others 

       1. A child learns how to tie their shoes by watching their parents do it. The child doesn't need direct teaching; they learn by observing the parent’s actions.

75. How did Bandura study observational learning?

    1. Children watched adults behave aggressively towards a Bobo doll, punching and kicking it. Later, when the children were left in the same room with the doll, they imitated the aggressive behavior they had observed.

Memory

76. What are encoding, storage, and retrieval?

    1. Encoding:

       1. Getting information into the memory

       2. Imagine you're studying for a history exam. You're reading a textbook chapter on ancient civilizations. The information from the textbook (e.g., facts about Egypt, Greece, and Rome) is coming into your sensory system (sight, in this case). Now, you need to encode it so it can be stored in memory.

    2. Storage: 

       1. Maintaining encoded information over time

          1. Think of storage like saving a file on a computer. Once the file (information) is saved, it remains in the computer's hard drive (memory) until you need to open it again.

          2. The physical changes that happen during storage are primarily in the synaptic connections between neurons. Neurons are the cells in the brain responsible for transmitting information.

    3. Retrieval:

       1. Pulling previously encoded and stored information from memory

          1. Imagine you have a document saved on your computer (information you've stored). When you need it for something, like answering a test question, you retrieve that document by opening it up. In the same way, when you take a test, you're retrieving information stored in your brain to answer the questions.

77. Sensory memory: 

    1. Brief storage of sensory information (e.g., visual or auditory). It holds information for only a few seconds or less.

78. Short-term memory:

    1. Also known as working memory, it holds information temporarily for immediate use (about 20 seconds) and has a limited capacity(about 7 items).

       1. You can remember a 7-digit number, but if someone asks you to remember a 10 digit one you won't

79. Long-term memory:

    1. Stores information for extended periods, potentially a lifetime. It has a vast capacity and includes both explicit and implicit memories.

80. What are explicit and implicit memories?

    1. Explicit memory:

       1. Conscious recollection of material from long term memory (declarative)

          1. recalling the date of a significant event, like your wedding anniversary, or remembering the name of a friend you haven't seen in a while

    2. Implicit memory: 

       1. Not brought to mind consciously but expressed in behavior

          1. Knowing how to tie your shoes, brush your teeth, or get dressed

    3. What are semantic and episodic memory?

       1. Semantic memory:

          1. Memory of general knowledge

             1. Just stuff you know, like who won the Super Bowl

             2. (e.g., knowing that Paris is the capital of France).

       2. Episodic memory:

          1.  The memory of personal experiences and specific events and personal experiences, like remembering your first day of school or what you had for dinner last night

81. What are maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?

    1. Maintenance rehearsal:

       1. Repeating information over and over to keep it in short-term memory

          1. Saying a word over and over

    2. Elaborative rehearsal:

       1. A deeper form of processing where you make connections to other information to help encode it into long-term memory 

          1. Putting into context, not just repeating things

          2. (e.g., linking a new word to something you already know).

82. What are levels of processing, and how do they relate to memory?

    1. Shallow processing: Asuperficial level of mental processing that focuses on the surface features of information, leading to weaker, less durable memory traces and limited retention

       1. Repeating a word or phrase without understanding its meaning

    2. Deep processing:

       1. Involves engaging with information meaningfully and elaborately, leading to better retention and retrieval compared to shallow processing

          1. Instead of just memorizing a historical date, try to understand its significance and how it relates to your own life or the lives of people you know.

83. What are context-dependent and state-dependent memory?

    1. Context-dependent memory:

       1. The idea that memory is better when the person is in the same environment or context in which the memory was formed 

          1. (e.g., recalling information better when in the same room where you studied).

    2. State-dependent memory:

       1. The idea that memory is better when a person is in the same physical or emotional state as when the memory was formed 

          1. (e.g., recalling more information when in the same mood as when you studied it).

84. What are anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

    1. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after the onset of the condition. People with this type of amnesia have difficulty remembering new information or events that occur after the amnesia begins. However, their long-term memories (before the onset) might remain intact.

       1. Example: Imagine someone who, after a car accident, can no longer remember anything that happens to them from that moment onward. They may meet someone, have a conversation, and then forget that person completely just a few minutes later. However, they still remember events from their past, such as their childhood, and can recognize old friends.

    2. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall memories that were formed before the onset of the condition. This means that people lose access to memories but may still be able to form new ones after the condition begins.

       1. Example: Consider someone who wakes up after an accident and cannot remember anything from their life before the accident, such as their name, family, or career. However, they may still be able to make new memories from the moment of recovery onward.

85. Is eyewitness memory reliable?

    1. It can be unreliable because memories can be altered by factors such as leading questions or misinformation.

       1. Example: In Loftus’s 1974 study, participants who were asked how fast two cars were going when they "smashed" into each other reported seeing broken glass, even though there was none. This shows how wording can influence memory.

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

86. What is the representativeness heuristic?

    1.  A mental shortcut where we judge the likelihood of something based on how similar it is to a stereotype or typical example.

       1. Example: If you meet someone who is quiet and enjoys reading, you might assume they are a librarian, even though there are many other professions they could have, simply because they fit the stereotype of a librarian.

87. What is the availability heuristic?

    1. A cognitive bias where we estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

       1. Example: If you hear about several plane crashes in the news, you might overestimate the danger of flying, even though statistically it is safer than driving.

88. What is the simulation heuristic (counterfactual thinking)?

    1. Imagining possible outcomes that could have happened but didn't, often leading to emotional reactions.

       1. Example: After losing a race by a fraction of a second, you might think, "If only I had run just a bit faster," imagining a better outcome and feeling regret.

89. What is the perseverance effect (belief perseverance)?

    1. The tendency to hold on to a belief even after the evidence supporting it has been discredited.

       1. Example: If someone believes that a certain diet is the best for weight loss, they might ignore studies that show the diet is ineffective, continuing to believe in it despite contradictory evidence.

    2. What is confirmation bias?

       1. To search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while disregarding information that contradicts them.

          1. Example: If you believe that a certain brand of phone is the best, you might focus on reviews that praise that brand and ignore reviews that highlight its shortcomings

90. What is a stereotype threat? 

    1. What is a stereotype threat?

       1. The fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's social group can lead to underperforming in situations where one might be judged based on those stereotypes.

          1. A woman taking a math test might perform poorly because she fears confirming the stereotype that women are not good at math

91. What are fixed and growth mindsets?  Which results in more effort and persistence? 

    1. Fixed mindset

       1. Belief that abilities and intelligence are static and unchangeable

          1. A student who believes they are "just not good at math" may avoid studying or giving their best effort because they think their abilities are predetermined and can’t improve.

    2. Growth mindset 

       1. abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication, effort, and learning. People with a growth mindset are more likely to embrace challenges and persevere through difficulties.

          1. Example: A student who struggles with math but believes that through practice, they can improve, continues to study and works hard to get better at math.

Motivation and Emotion

92. What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

    1. A theory in psychology that proposes a five-tier model of human needs, from basic needs at the bottom to more complex needs at the top.

       1. Example: A person who is hungry and homeless may focus more on meeting their physiological and safety needs before pursuing relationships or personal growth.

    2. What is self-actualization?

       1. The realization of one's full potential and the pursuit of personal growth and creativity. It’s the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy.

          1. Example: An artist who reaches a point where they can express their true creative vision and live authentically, regardless of societal expectations.

93. What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

    1. A theory that suggests emotions are the result of physiological reactions to stimuli. In this view, we feel an emotion because our body reacts in a certain way.

       1. Example: If you see a bear, your body might start trembling (physiological response), and then you interpret this response as fear (emotion).

94. What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

    1. A theory that suggests emotions and physiological responses happen simultaneously and independently. Seeing a bear, for example, causes both the emotion of fear and a physical response (like a racing heart) at the same time.

       1. Example: When you see a bear, you simultaneously feel fear and experience a racing heartbeat — both happen at once.

95. What is Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion?

    1. A theory that suggests emotions are the result of two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

       1. Example: If your heart races after seeing a bear, you might interpret the physiological arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context (e.g., if you're in a safe environment, you may interpret it as excitement).

Social Psychology

96. What are internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions?

    1. Internal Attribution: 

       1. Explaining someone's behavior as being due to their personality, characteristics, or abilities (e.g., “She’s late because she’s disorganized”).

    2. External Attribution: 

       1. Explaining someone's behavior based on external factors, like the situation or environment (e.g., “She’s late because of traffic”).

97. What is the fundamental attribution error?  

    1. The tendency to overestimate the role of internal (dispositional) factors and underestimate the role of external (situational) factors when explaining someone else's behavior. (when you compare other people)

       1. Example: If a coworker misses a meeting, we might assume they are lazy or irresponsible (internal), rather than considering external factors like traffic or family emergencies.

98. What was Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment?

    1. What was Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment?

       1. Study: Participants were randomly assigned to be "guards" or "prisoners" in a simulated prison. The study demonstrated how quickly individuals conform to social roles, with guards becoming abusive and prisoners becoming submissive. The experiment was stopped early due to the extreme effects it had on participants' behavior.

99. What is cognitive dissonance?

    1. the uncomfortable feeling you get when your actions don't match your beliefs or values. It's like when you know something is wrong but do it anyway, or when you believe one thing but act in a way that goes against that belief.

       1. Example: You know smoking is bad for your health (belief), but you smoke anyway (behavior). This creates discomfort, and you might:

100. What are normative and informational social influences?

     1. Normative Social Influence: 

        1. The influence to conform to be liked or accepted by others.

           1. Example: Wearing trendy clothes to fit in with a group of friends, even if you don’t like the style.

     2. Informational Social Influence: 

        1. The influence to conform because we believe others have more accurate information or better knowledge about a situation.

           1. Example: When unsure of the correct answer in a group discussion, you might go along with what the majority says, assuming they are correct.