MA L2 - USA

The US entered in history of modern architecture in the late 19th century, and then during the early 20th century play an important role in the history of modern architecture. 

From the very first settlers, American builders learnt from europe. Americans who wanted to become architects needed to go study in europe to become architecture.

American architecture looked like it was taken out of architectural textbooks of the Ecole de Beaux Arts. 

An example of this is the White City, it was the main venue of the Chicago World Fair. Here, you can see typical figures, magical layout, neo-classical forms, together with a symmetrical layout, classical architecture characterized by columns.  

Americans continued to adapt to the neo-classical style taught in European schools. 

America learning from European architecture.

This started to change in the second half of the 19th century. When american architects started to develop their own original american style which responded to local conditions. 

Today we will recontrust 3 milestones in the history of this style. 

The "genuine american" style.

Ralph Waldo Emerson reflects on early concepts of American identity by stating that American houses are constructed with foreign tastes and adorned with foreign ornaments, suggesting that opinions, tastes, and faculties are influenced by the past and distant cultures, questioning the reasons for copying Doric or Gothic architectural models.

First we must look in the past, wondering how American architecture was conceived. One of the most important figures: Ralph Waldo Emerson (a philosopher and priest) published a number of texts that tackled the issue of american architecture. He created a group which aimed to promote an independent american culture. 

Some of the members of this group were poet Walt Whitman and another philosopher Henry David Thoreau. 

Walt Whitman was the most well-known american poet of the 19th century. He brought forward the idea that America was a young nation that needed to differentiate itself from "old europe", needed to stop trying to copy old styles.

Emerson believes they must study their own environment in order to create a architecture that best suits their country. 

Aesthetically, Emerson brought forward the idea of organic beauty (organic: something that is coherent to the environment, that does not oppose it). In this case, the organic beauty of the American environment would grow on American soil, in a perfect economy. Americans are defined as people who don’t live in luxury. It’s not about luxury but the economy of our life. 

Architects should not use a lot of ornaments as they represent luxury and europe.

In his journal entry from January 11, 1852, Henry David Thoreau observes that the architectural beauty he sees has gradually developed from the character and needs of the inhabitants and builders, without any consideration for mere ornamentation.

Another important figure, Henry David Thoreau, a philosopher and poet who believed that everybody could build, that there was no need for a trained architect in America. Organic idea, no ornament, is anybody can do it.

Thoreau, hut at Walden Pond, 1845

He put up a trial, built his own small home on a property owned by Emerson. He built the most simple version of a small house (one door in the front, two window, no ornaments). He provided proof that this house was functional by living in it for two years. He wanted to prove that anyone could live this kind of life.

Henry Hobson Richardson (1838–1886) graduated from Harvard in 1859 and studied at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris from 1860 to 1865. In 1865, he opened his own office in New York and later moved to Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1874, where he developed the "Richardsonian Romanesque" style.

Now, moving on to disciplinary architecture. There are three architects that act as early contribution to modern american architecture. The first being Henry Hobson Richardson, he is the least known of the three architects who are considered to be the fathers of American architecture. 

He took the first important step towards indigenous american architecture. 

At the time, all americans who wanted to become architects needed to go to Europe for education and culture. He travelled to Paris then moved back to the US, opened his own office. He is considered the founder of the “Richardsonian Romanesque” 

Romanesque architecture serves as a reference for relatively plain designs characterized by simple geometric forms and clearly defined volumes.

Richardsons main work: The Trinity Church in Boston. On one hand, this church appears to be historical, it is not evident that it is the first big step towards modern architecture. 

He initially was inspired by Romanesque architecture (medieval architecture). When he was traveling, this kind of architecture was quite close to what he considered modern american architecture as its aesthetic features aligned with the local demand (simple forms, no ornamentation).

It was a good reference for american architects to create buildings that displayed these architectural qualities - Simple geometric forms, clear cut volumes.

The layout of the church is almost symmetrical, which aligns with the ideas of American style.

The parsonage (a church house provided for a member of the clergy) is the added volume that causes the church to be asymmetrical. It is the asymmetric feature - another idea that was considered to be modern.

This feature was inspired by romanic church walkways.

The adaptations from medieval architecture, how Richardson used ornaments. 

The first, he used historic examples to develop modern architecture. On strategy is illustrated here, he adapted a common Romanesque motif to introduce these stairs. Walkway is deformed in order to be introduced as a element of a contemporary building.  

The design emphasizes material aesthetics and minimizes ornaments. Any ornaments present follow a structural logic, allowing structural elements to gain ornamental value.

Material based on aesthetic quality, rough surface (play of light). The material assumes a ornamental role.

Structural arches act as ornaments.

The next building we will look at is the Ames Gate Lodge in North Easton, a radical example of how Richardsons uses materials to create aesthetic. 

For this project, Richardson (architect) worked with Olmstead (one of the biggest landscape architect). Here, architecture and landscape work together, showing that landscape design is very important in the creation of good architecture.

The stones used were found on site, they used material found in the natural landscape. The construction is built with local materials (big, rough boulders).

The house's irregular form shows that it is the programme the determines the form. One of them bring the umbrella roof that sits like a hat on the building, and the chimney is made with bowlers, it anchors the roof to the ground.

The material being the same to its surroundings makes it anchored on the ground. The building belongs to the geographical environment.

This is another building of the same complex, there is the same aesthetic discourse. American Soil.

• The house is connected to ground, the soil on which it rests, through building material and forms (huge arch anchors the building to the ground + steep umbrella roof and windows looking down, everything is towards to the ground.

• There are also the ornamental qualities of the building material (the contrast between the texture of the material and it's colour: the boulders VS the roof

Granite serves as the sole material, featuring rough-cut stones with an overall plain surface. The design showcases clearly defined volumes, with variations in the sizes of the stones adding visual interest.

Glessner House in Chicago in an example how these ideas can be introduced in an urban context. The facades are characterised by the single material (granite) that unifies the facade. Unifying element. Although the same material is used resulting in a overall plain facade, the rough cut stones, add a little bit of spice. 

The entire volume is a clear cut volume with very clear geometrical forms. 

In addition, the house is further refined in terms of diligent shifts of the layoung. Richardson subtly played with the symmetry of the facade.

Facade seems symmetrical with the central doorway and order of windows.  

Red region: a vertical axis with which the symmetry is slightly underlined. A weight added to the left side, but it is countered with the weight of the...

... other red region: side facade, which results as a visual counterweight of the asymmetrical front facade.  

You can probably evaluate the aesthetic quality of the building through it's corner and facade. Visual balance of the asymmetrical weights can only be achieved when looking at the house front the corner. 

The position of the individual, angle at which you look at the house, the perspective, determines the aspect of the facade.

This underlines the importance of the perception of the individual. 

Taking a closer look at the main facade: 

- There is no basement, the house sits directly on the american ground, with a front door at grade (usually there are 4 or 5, but here there is only one).

- The openings are above shoulder height (makes the house feel very present in the landscape, it highlights the shelter the house provides).

- The massive presence of the house is further enhanced by it's heavyweight appearance. The house's presence is further enhanced by its appearance (arches are very heavy visually).

- The opening are clearly cut into the walls with no window frames, strengthening the weight of the walls as an aesthetic expression. There is no ornamentation, no intermediate elements. The structure of the building is visible the arch is used as ornamentation.

Ornamentation is provided through structure.

Lateral facade, even more closed than main facade, with very few opening. Windows are at shoulder height so no one could look in or climb in. House is heavily on the ground. 

Richardson is famous also for his entrance design, these innovative design of entrance situation. Here, it's a heavy arch which has the frame of a niche. 

Another detail of the lateral facade, the windows are reduced to bare slits in the wall with a heavyweight appearance. This rough cut underlines the idea that the house provides natural shelter. Light and shadow effect further enhance this.

H.H. Richardson, Marshall Field Wholesale Store, Chicago, 1885–87

Last building by Richardson, a department store in Chicago. The architect asked himself, how he could make the facade of a multi-story building feel more organic? His design strategy was to scale down the size of the windows in each part of the facade, so that the order could be organic (the grandparents are at the bottom and at the top there are the grand-children who are smaller).

Additionally, there are the unifying motifs, such as the use of a single material unifying the façade, no intermediate beams, all of the windows are brought together under one arch.

To understand the achievements of this kind of design we can compare this to the typical design of department store at the time: Burnham's Rockery Building in Chicago. There is a mechanic order, superimposed groups of stories separated by horizontal beams, same scale of windows at the top and bottom. Stacking effect, mechanic approach.  

The typical design at the time was mechanical, Richardson is trying to defy the architectural norms of the time. There is the theme of “mechanic” versus “organic” - superimposed (stacked one on top of the other) groups, of one to three stories, separated by a horizontal beam. This is the mechanical intersection of organic elements.

First time looking at American architecture in European schools (their style of ornamentation and overall aesthetics).

Richardson was considered by American contemporaries to be one of the fathers of American architecture for his input. They admired his works as they illustrated the qualities that defined American architecture.

Richardson was considered the founder of modern American architecture, and his design of the Marshall Field Wholesale Store represented the american commercial spirit. Sullivan, the second architect we will be talking about today, promised to continue his path and represent the second generation of modern American architecture.

Architecture is considered a metaphysical task. (Metaphysics: an abstract theory with no basis in reality).

Louis Sullivan was an apprentice at MIT, one of the most important architectural offices. He completed his education in Europe and then moved back the US and worked as a landscape architect. He was the main designer in the office. He is quite well-known.

Sullivan was very active in commercial architecture. Wainwright Building in Saint Louis, is a great example of a good design for a skyscraper. This building is located outside of Chicago, but it still demonstrates his principles that can be found in all his skyscrapers. 

Modern typologies would have to meet contemporary conditions of commercial architecture.

Sullivan needed to respond to the current conditions of the USA. 

The first element was the introduction of the elevator in the floor plan. A major push for high rise building. 

A second innovation was the push for technical innovation, prior to steel frame, building were made out of brick. This new type of construction allowed high rise buildings to further develop. 

The third main condition was the conditions of commercial labour and how it was characterized. 

“Tripartite theory” – three part theory, buildings should be structurally divided into in three parts: the basement, the main floors and the attic. 

Each section is designed in a specific way, according to its function.

These three sections are visible from the outside, may be distinguished in the facade.

First Section: basement

On the ground floor there are shops, this section is characterised by its large windows of the ground floor and slightly smaller windows of the first floor.

Second Section: main floors 

The goals of the central section were to:

1. Express the vertical dynamics of a high-rise building (the vertical dynamics of the elevator and the structural framework).

2. Respond to the conditions of commercial labor through the use of repeating motifs (such as the large number of identical small windows that belong to equal office spaces). This means that there is no management and no rules. This creates a democratic structure in the offices, where everyone has the same small office and works together collaboratively within the context of this building. 

One could say that the structural skeleton of the building echoes this democratic system. 

It has an axis that is much wider than the axis of the facade. 

Third section: attic

In the top part of the building there is a heavy roof slab that closes off the vertical dynamics of the building. There is also an ornamental ribbon (circular ornaments) that is an aesthetic representation of the turning of the elevators. 

The vertical pilasters support the roof to a certain degree. The vertical dynamic is the most important feature of the facade (separates the individual office spaces). 

The single ceiling plates: it's structural role is not represented, instead it appears like an ornamental ribbon. 

Suliman's design strategies. 

He believed that a building's form should follow its function, a principle that is often misunderstood by contemporary architects. He argued that function is much more than the activities taking place inside the building; it also includes the building's overall expression and design. For Sullivan, ornamentation plays a crucial role in defining a building's function.

For instance, the elevator: the decorative ribbons not only serve a structural purpose but also enhance the vertical dynamics of the design, illustrating the interplay between form and function in his architectural philosophy.

Prairie School (1893–1910)
The third figure of modern american architecture, also the most known is Frank Lloyd Wright (FLW) 

A group of Chicago students, inspired by Louis Sullivan, claimed to carry on his legacy, viewing him as their spiritual leader. They focused on residential architecture, seeking to develop domestic architecture rather than commercial architecture, primarily in the outskirts of Chicago. Wanted to create a organic response to the landscape. 

Their work reflected a desire to create elaborate concepts that incorporated references to foreign architectural styles, blending local tradition with global influences. This approach allowed them to explore new ideas while remaining rooted in the principles established by Sullivan, emphasizing harmony with the surrounding environment and the needs of the inhabitants

Wright is the only architect out of the three who did not study in Europe. He studied civil engineering. He worked directly under Sullivan and considered himself part of Sullivan's next generation. At one point, Wright abandoned his family to move to Germany with the wife of a client, but he later returned to the US to continue his architectural practice.

(whaaat? wright what are you doing! your poor family #cancelFLW)

His most famous work: Falling Water

Latest work: the Guggenheim museum.

In terms of numbers, he is the most notable american architect. He is one of the most influential architects in modern American architecture. He had a long and impactful career.

His early works, published during his time in Germany. 

This is about the narrative that Wright was building an organic and natural american architecture as a response to prairie landscape. Some criticized it as too straight, while others regard it highly.

Wright viewed buildings as an assembly of Froebel toys, composed of simple geometric volumes. 

This allowed him to understand how the composition of small elements with simple forms, create larger-scale buildings.

Wright was significantly influenced by Japanese art and geometric forms, particularly in the following areas:

- Formal Principles of Composition: Based on Arthur Wesley Dow’s analysis of Japanese graphic art.

- Theory of "Pure Design": Emphasizes formal principles and patterns that are ahistorical, not tied to specific historical phases.

Wright was a collector of Japanese graphic art, which significantly influenced his architectural style. He organized several exhibitions and served as curator for various collections.

As a boy, Wright visited the Japanese pavilion at the Chicago World’s Fair, where he developed a deep appreciation for Japanese architecture. Many motifs in his designs reflect this early inspiration.

Edward S. Morse compared Japanese and American architecture, noting that the Japanese often did not use doors and windows in the traditional sense, creating a mediated space between the indoors and outdoors. 

Compared Japanese architecture to american architecture. Morse states that american houses were similar to perforated wooden boxes, while japanese house has sliding walls instead of windows, mediating spaces that are both inside and outside. 

He proposed japanese architecture as model for the development of the modern american architecture style. 

Wright argued that american houses only provided small openings rather than allowing light and air. Openings should not be only functional. 

This resulted in a three step design strategy, that he later defined as the destruction of the box. 

The first step concerns the plan, he aimed to eliminate the rooms as boxes. 

This resulted in an open floor plan. 

Spaces are made by division not by addition.

Regarding the exterior, the house still appears like a box. The walls are intended to look like screens open to the sky with a roof that sits on the building like a hat. 

The second step, the roof tiles reinforce the idea that the house is composed of the inclosure of 4 screens. This is achieved through the contrast between the dark facade of the first floor with the light facade of the ground floor. 

Lightweight walls, absence of tectonic expression, and an ornamental ribbon (opposing the lack of tectonics in the rest of the facade) marking the entrance section. 

The third step is related to the walls and volume that are disrupted to a certain degree. 

The walls are reduced to a constructive skeleton.

A small portion of the walls remains, with more windows blurring the boundaries between the inside and the outside, between the volume and everything else.

The design features a combination of volumes that replaces the traditional box form. At its core, the chimney acts as a social center, reminiscent of pioneering structures, and connects the vertical landscape of the building. The layout resembles a windmill, adding to the uniqueness of the design. This creates a dynamic spatial experience; depending on the point of entry, each visitor perceives the house differently, resulting in a unique experience for every individual.

Robie House = Masterpiece House

- The roofs above the square volumes feature horizontal forms that echo the flatness of the floors below. 

- At the center of the house, the chimney serves as a focal point, indicating the social center of the space. 

- The open structure includes large windows, allowing natural light to flood in. This design creates an uplifting atmosphere, with the space possessing a unique power that seems to push the ceiling upward.

The plan shows that the box is gone, no more walls, open structure filled with windows. 

Central part of the ceiling, motif used to show that the space has its own power pushing the ceiling upwards.  

Another example, Wright's design of the Unity Temple church in Chicago. 

Similar features, the box is reduced to it's structural skeleton. Including the ceiling with its structural skylights. 

The walls composed by elements that to not promote the idea of a box. 

This results in having a big room that is not inclosed in walls anymore, creating a purer space. 

There are no more closed spaces; the design embodies purity. The central space materializes, extending outward and connecting seamlessly with the exterior environment. This open configuration enhances the feeling of spaciousness and invites the outside in.