Definition of developmental psychology p383 Twin studies p385 Teratogens p391 Attachment and Lorenz p398 Ainsworth strange situation p400 Erikson first two stages Piaget stages p406-407 Vygotsky p410 Kohlberg p414 Gilligan p415 Erikson identity p416 Second shift p426 Aging p427

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Developmental Psychology (p383)

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. This field examines changes across a broad range of topics including motor skills, cognitive development, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social, personality, and emotional development.

Twin Studies (p385)

Twin studies are a powerful tool in behavioral genetics, used to disentangle the effects of genetics and environment on a particular trait. There are two main types of twin studies:

1. Monozygotic (MZ) Twins: These twins share 100% of their genes because they develop from a single fertilized egg that splits. Any differences between MZ twins are generally attributed to environmental factors.

2. Dizygotic (DZ) Twins: These twins share approximately 50% of their genes, similar to any other sibling pair. They result from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm. Differences between DZ twins can be due to both genetic and environmental factors.

By comparing the similarities and differences between MZ and DZ twins, researchers can estimate the heritability of a trait—the proportion of variance in a trait that can be attributed to genetic factors. For example, if MZ twins are more similar in a trait than DZ twins, it suggests a strong genetic component to that trait.

Teratogens (p391)

Teratogens are substances or environmental factors that can cause developmental malformations (birth defects) in a developing embryo or fetus. Exposure to teratogens can result in a range of physical, cognitive, and behavioral abnormalities. The severity and type of defects depend on several factors:

• Dose: Higher doses of the teratogen typically result in more severe effects.

• Timing: The stage of prenatal development during exposure is critical. Some organs or systems are more vulnerable during specific developmental periods.

• Genetic Susceptibility: Individual genetic differences can make some embryos or fetuses more susceptible to teratogenic effects.

Examples of common teratogens include:

• Alcohol: Can cause Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD), leading to physical abnormalities, cognitive deficits, and behavioral problems.

• Tobacco: Increases the risk of premature birth, low birth weight, and respiratory problems.

• Certain Medications: Some prescription and over-the-counter drugs can cause birth defects.

• Infections: Viruses like Zika, rubella, and cytomegalovirus (CMV) can lead to serious developmental issues.

• Environmental Toxins: Exposure to lead, mercury, and radiation can also be teratogenic.

Attachment and Lorenz (p398)

Attachment refers to the emotional bond that develops between an infant and their primary caregiver. This bond is essential for the infant's social and emotional development. Konrad Lorenz, an ethologist, demonstrated the concept of imprinting, particularly in birds. Imprinting is a form of attachment where a young animal forms a strong bond with the first moving object it sees after birth or hatching. This often occurs within a critical period. While imprinting is most pronounced in birds, it highlighted the importance of early experiences in forming attachments.

Ainsworth Strange Situation (p400)

The Strange Situation is a standardized procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess the quality of attachment between infants and their caregivers. The procedure involves a series of episodes where the infant is exposed to different situations, including separation from and reunion with the caregiver. Based on their behavior during these episodes, infants are classified into one of four attachment styles:

1. Secure Attachment: Infants show distress when the caregiver leaves but are easily comforted upon their return. They use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore.

2. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Infants show little distress when the caregiver leaves and avoid contact upon their return. They may appear independent but are often suppressing their need for comfort.

3. Insecure-Ambivalent (or Resistant) Attachment: Infants show intense distress when the caregiver leaves and are difficult to soothe upon their return. They may exhibit contradictory behaviors, such as seeking contact but then resisting it.

4. Disorganized Attachment: Infants show inconsistent and often contradictory behaviors. They may appear dazed, confused, or fearful. This style is often associated with caregivers who are inconsistent or abusive.

Erikson's First Two Stages

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development proposes that individuals go through eight stages of development from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage presents a unique psychosocial crisis that must be resolved to develop a healthy personality. The first two stages are:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy: 0-18 months):

   • Description: During this stage, infants learn whether they can trust the world and the people around them. If caregivers consistently provide care and affection, infants develop a sense of trust. If caregivers are neglectful or inconsistent, infants develop a sense of mistrust.

   • Outcome: Successful resolution leads to hope; failure leads to fear and suspicion.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood: 2-3 years):

   • Description: As toddlers begin to assert their independence, they need to explore their environment and make choices. If caregivers encourage this independence, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy. If caregivers are overly controlling or critical, toddlers develop feelings of shame and doubt.

   • Outcome: Successful resolution leads to will; failure leads to self-doubt and lack of independence.

Piaget's Stages (p406-407)

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development outlines four stages through which children progress as they construct their understanding of the world:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

   • Description: Infants learn about the world through their senses and motor actions. Key achievements include object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight) and the development of basic schemes (mental patterns).

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

   • Description: Children begin to use symbols and language but still struggle with logical thinking. Key characteristics include egocentrism (difficulty understanding others' perspectives), animism (believing inanimate objects are alive), and centration (focusing on only one aspect of a problem).

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

   • Description: Children develop the ability to think logically about concrete events. They can understand concepts like conservation (understanding that the amount of something remains the same even if its appearance changes) and reversibility (understanding that actions can be reversed).

4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years):

   • Description: Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. They can engage in deductive reasoning and understand abstract concepts like justice and morality.

Vygotsky (p410)

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development. Key concepts include:

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO).

• Scaffolding: The process by which an MKO provides support and guidance to help a learner master tasks within their ZPD.

• Language and Thought: Vygotsky believed that language is a crucial tool for cognitive development, as it allows children to internalize and regulate their thinking.

Kohlberg (p414)

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development proposes that individuals progress through three levels of moral reasoning, each with two stages:

1. Preconventional Level:

   • Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Moral reasoning is based on avoiding punishment.

   • Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: Moral reasoning is based on self-interest and reciprocity.

2. Conventional Level:

   • Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: Moral reasoning is based on maintaining social harmony and approval.

   • Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: Moral reasoning is based on following rules and laws to maintain social order.

3. Postconventional Level:

   • Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: Moral reasoning is based on upholding social contracts and individual rights.

   • Stage 6: Universal Principles: Moral reasoning is based on abstract ethical principles and a sense of justice.

Gilligan (p415)

Carol Gilligan critiqued Kohlberg's theory, arguing that it was biased against women. Gilligan proposed that women's moral reasoning often emphasizes care and relationships, which she termed the "ethics of care," while Kohlberg's theory focused more on justice and individual rights. Gilligan's perspective suggests that there are different but equally valid approaches to moral reasoning.

Erikson Identity (p416)

During adolescence (Erikson's fifth stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion), individuals grapple with forming a sense of identity. They explore different roles, values, and beliefs to determine who they are. Successful resolution of this stage leads to a strong sense of self, while failure leads to confusion about one's place in the world.

Second Shift (p426)

The second shift refers to the unpaid labor performed at home, typically by women, after they complete their paid work outside the home. This includes housework, childcare, and other domestic responsibilities. The concept highlights the unequal distribution of labor within many households and the additional burden placed on working mothers.

Aging (p427)

Aging is a complex process involving biological, psychological, and social changes across the lifespan. Key aspects of aging include:

• Physical Changes: Decline in sensory abilities, decrease in muscle strength and bone density, and increased susceptibility to illness.

• Cognitive Changes: Some decline in cognitive functions, such as processing speed and memory, though crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge and experience) often remains stable or even increases.

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