2.1 Perception

• perception is the process of organizing and interpreting the information we obtain through our senses

  • sensation is about detecting a stimulus

  • perception is about interpreting a stimulus

    top-down processing: perception is conducted using prior experiences and expectations to interpret the sensory input

    • used when a stimulus is familiar or simple

    • helps us process things in a efficient manner, but may cause the brain to overlook small details

      proofreader’s illusion - failure to notice errors when reading typed materials

      • ex.) missing typos when skimming through a paper

    • leads to skewed perceptions as our previous experiences and expectations influence the interpretation of new stimuli

    bottom-up processing: when the stimuli or experience is complex and unfamiliar to the individual, perception starts at sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing

    • perception is built from the ground up as we organize and interpret information as it comes in without relying on prior knowledge.

    • takes longer than top-down processing

      

    schemas: mental framework that organizes and builds on our past experiences

    • helps us predict and interpret experiences, but must be changed to accommodate for new experiences

    perceptual sets: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

  • schemas and perceptual sets can be beneficial for efficient processing, but can lead us astray based on various moods

    • perception can be influenced by both internal factors (such as culture, mood, emotions, and expectations) and external factors (environment)

    selective attention: when we focus on a particular stimulus, we often tune out other stimuli in our environment to focus on relevant information

    ex.) focusing on a conversation even if loud music is playing in the background

  • manage sensory inputs to give priority to what’s important while filtering out unnecessary stimuli

  cocktail party effect: ability to focus on a specific conversation or sound in a noisy setting

  in-attentional blindness: the failure to notice stimuli in our visual field due to our attention being focused elsewhere

  change blindness: a type of inattentional blindness where we fail to notice changes in the environment

  • these phenomenons demonstrate the limitations and selective nature of human attention

  apparent movement: the perception of motion despite nothing actually moving

  • phi phenomenon: occurs when lights blink on and off in sequence, resulting in the perception of objects as moving even though the objects are stationary

  • induced movement: occurs when a stationary object appears to move because of the motion of surrounding objects

  gestalt psychology: focuses on how humans naturally group elements together to form meaningful patterns

  • helps explain how we organize our perceptual world

  • do not process brain as individual stimuli, instead as a unified whole

  • emphasizes that our perceptual experiences are more than the sum of their parts

    gastal principles: explain how we naturally organize sensory input into meaningful patterns

    • proximity: when objects are placed close to each other they are often perceived as a single group, while objects that are spaced farther apart are seen as separate entities

    • similarity: explains how we perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit (anomalies stand out)

    • closure: our brain subconsciously fills in missing information when viewing a familiar but incomplete object

    • figure & ground: describes how our visual system separates what we see into two categories; figure, the object of focus, and the ground, the background

    • symmetry: when objects that are symmetrical to each other are perceived as one object, rather than individual, separate elements

    • continuation: addresses why our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or paths

      • ex.) drawn to the door upon seeing exit signs

• depth perception: the ability to perceive relative distance of an object in one’s visual field

• binocular depth cues: a depth cue that depends on the use of two eyes

  • retinal disparity: by comparing retinal images from two eyes, the brain perceives depth

    • the greater the disparity, the closer the object

  • convergence: the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object, the closer the object is

    

• monocular depth cues: a depth cue available to either eye alone

  • ex.) interposition or linear perspective

• perceptual constancy: ability to perceive objects as having a consistent shape, size, color, and lightness, even when their appearance change due to varying conditions

  • size constancy: brain’s tendency to perceive objects as the same size

  • color constancy: when we perceive the color of an object to remain consistent, even if the lighting changes

  • shape constancy: tendency of the brain to perceive an object’s shape as the same, even when it moves

    • ex.) opening and closing a door

  • lightness constancy: the ability to perceive the blackness, whiteness, and grayness of an objective as consistent even under different lighting conditions, essentially this is the shading of an object

• constancies explain why the brain doesn’t perceive someone to grow bigger when approaching or coloring drastically changing in a dark versus lit room

2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgements, & Decision-Making

• cognition: how we use and store information

  • ex.) perceiving, judging, remembering, conceiving, reasoning, imagining, and problem-solving

• humans are wired to think a certain way —> shortcuts and biases

• metacognition - essentially thinking about thinking

  • ex.) if studying for a test, you plan out how the methods you will use to best remember the information

• concepts: mental categories that help us organize and understand the world

  • group objects, events, ideas, and people under a shared classification

• prototypes: most typical or basic example of a concept, it serves as a mental image that illustrates the concept and acts as a cognitive reference point or benchmark

  • when asked to name a bird cardinals and blue jays (flying birds) are more likely to be your prototype than a flamingo or ostrich

  • if asked to name balls used in a sport, ball is the concept and specific examples are prototypes

• schemas: more complex mental frameworks that organize and interpret information about the world

  • they help us categorize new information and experiences based on previous knowledge, allowing for quicker understanding and decision-making

• assimilation: when we fit new information into existing schemas

• accommodation: when a schema is changed to incorporate new information

  • helps individuals consistently refine and expand their schemas → better understanding of their experiences and the world

• assimilation adds information without altering the schema while accomodation alters the schema to add information

  problem-solving strategies

• executive functioning: cognitive processes that help individuals organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors (in addition to engaging in critical thinking)

  • closely linked to the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex

• trial and error: repeating trials and learning from each error

• insight learning: sudden realization of how to solve a problem, often after trial and error

• algorithms: where a person tackles a problem step-by-step in a systematic way

  • ex.) upon losing your phone, search every room in your home; math class

• heuristics: mental shortcuts based on past experiences that reduce mental effort needed to make decisions, simplify complex questions, fast way to arrive at a conclusion, and help with problem-solving

  • ex.) upon losing your phone, retrace your steps and focus on the areas where you had your phone

    • saves time but may lead you to miss areas

  • representative heuristics: involves making judgements based on how much something resembles or represents a typical case or stereotype

    • could cause individuals to overlook details and focus on information that aligns with their expectations/biases

  • availability heuristics: involves making judgements based on how easily examples come to mind

    • could lead to errors when decisions are influenced heavily on recent memories instead of a full consideration of the facts

  

• mental set: a cognitive framework that relies on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems

  • specific to problem-solving while a schema is focused on organizing information

• when approaching new challenges in life, people are more likely to approach it using methods that worked in the past

  • saves time and energy, but limits creativity and prevents from considering better or more efficient solution

  mental set is intended for problem solving while schemas interpret and organize past information

• priming: the phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus

  • repetition priming: occurs when exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later

  • semantic priming: involves the influence of one word on the interpretation of another, related word

• framing: refers to how information is presented, which can shape how we interpret and react to it, often influencing our decisions and judgments

• creativity: when individuals create new ideas or solutions

• divergent thinking: when a person explores many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem

  • How can we improve this product?

    • not one correct solution, start from one question —> multiple solutions

• convergent thinking: involves narrowing down the possibilities to come up with the single best option

  • ex.) only one correct solution to a math problem

  Sternberg’s five key components of creativity -

  • expertise: the more knowledge one has about a subject, the more likely they are to apply it in new and innovative ways

  • intrinsic motivation: individuals must have an internal drive to pursue a goal for personal satisfaction, rather than external rewards

  • venturesome personality: the individual must be willing to seek out new experiences and embrace challenges that will help them grow and see new perspectives

  • creative environment: individuals that surround themselves with other creative people and and creative environments tend to foster innovation and promote creative thinking

  • imaginative thinking: an individual must be able to view concepts in a unique and creative way, rather than focusing on traditional perspectives

• people become limited by one way of thinking

• functional fixedness: limits an individual to using an object only in its traditional way

  • ex.) thinking of a as hammer only a tool for pounding nails, not a doorstop

  cognitive biases

• gambler’s fallacy: mistaken belief that if an event occurs more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa

  • ex.) if roulette keeps landing on red 10 times, might believe 11th will be black (no effect on future spins)

    • —> poor decision making

• sunk-cost fallacy: tendency to continue to pursue an action in which you’ve already invested money, time , or resources into, regardless of its future value

  • ex.) business is failing, keep investing because of already resources put in, not wanting those investments to go to waste

  • keeps individuals stuck in unproductive situations

2.3 Introduction to Memory

Memory is the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

• 3 process that occur in the memory system

  • encoding: the process of placing information into the memory system

  • storage: the process of retaining information over time (if encoded properly)

  • retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage

  • The better information is encoded, the better it will be able to be retrieved from storage

• recall: retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time.

  • ex.) fill in the blank questions

  recognition: identifying items previously learned

  • ex.) multiple choice question

• relearning: learning something quicker when you learn it a second time

  • when you study for a final exam or engage a language used in early childhood, you will relearn the material more easily than you did initially.

    

• Attkinson-Shiffrin model : states that there are three distinct types of memory, each with its own function

  • sensory memory: stores all incoming sensory information for up to a second

    • no attention —> forgotten

  • short-term memory: what is occuring in the present moment, lasts for 2-30 seconds (also referred to as working memory)

    • not encoded —> forgotten

    • hold 5-9 things in your short-term memory

  • long-term memory: lasts forever

    • if something is encoded for storage properly, it can theoretically last forever (without suffering brain damage)

    • long-term potentiation (LTP): process that strengthens the synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation

• explicit memory: involves information that we consciously recall, requiring more effort and thought

  • episodic memory: related to personal experiences and events

  • semantic memory: involves knowledge and facts

• implicit memory: information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it

  • procedural memory: helps us recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines

  • prospect memory: involves remembering to perform future actions

    • ex.) recalling to take a medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week

• parallel processing: brain handles multiple streams of information simetanuelosy

  

• working memory model: explains how our primary memory system (working memory) processes and temporarily holds information for cognitive tasks

  • central executive: acts as the control center of working memory by focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, switching between different activities, and integrating information from the loop and sketchpad

  • visuospatial sketchpad (aka the inner eye): handles visual and spatial information, allowing us to visualize objects and their locations

    • ex.) imagining furniture in a room or a scene in a book

  • phonological loop: deals with verbal and auditory information

    • phonological store (aka inner ear): holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time

    • articulatory rehearsal process (aka inner voice): helps you repeat and rehearse verbal information to keep it active in your working memory

      • ex.) keeping a list of words in mind or remembering a phone number long enough to dial it

  • episodic buffer: explains how long-term memory integrates with working memory and how different types of information, such as sounds and visuals, are combined

    • acts as temporary storage system that brings together information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into one cohesive sequence

      

• multi-store model: explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved, focusing on three key systems that information must pass through if it is going to be remembered

  • Stimulus —> Sensory Memory —> Working Memory —> Long-term memory

• sensory memory: very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

  • automatic processing takes place here, meaning information is gathered with little or no conscious effort

    iconic memory: visual sensory memory that lasts for a fraction of a a second

    • ex.) you can see the afterglow of a sparkler

  • echoic memory: auditory sensory memory that lasts 1-4 seconds

    • ex.) somebody asks for question but you didn’t catch, go back into the echoic memory to retrieve

• if your attention is caught, information moves into working/short-term memory

• information can be lost easily, but rehearsal can be used to keep it fresh

  • rehearsal: encoding information but repeatedly practicing it

    • two types: maintenance (repeating info to prevent forgetting) & elaborative (connect old information to new information)

  • levels of processing: shallow and deep

• encoding: process of moving information from short-term to long-term memory

• retrieval: pull information out of storage

• structural processing: superficial level, focus on the physical appearance

  • ex.) what a word looks like

• phonemic processing: deeper level, focus on how the information sounds

  • ex.) how a word is pronounced

• semantic processing: deepest level, focus on the meaning of the information

  • ex.) understanding of a word’s definition

2.4 Encoding Memories

• encoding: the process and strategies we use to take in information and store it in our long-term memory

• visual encoding: encoding information by observed visual elements

  • ex.) noticing certain sections of a book have a specific font

• acoustic encoding: when the different sound elements help with the encoding process

  • ex.) remember information by using rhymes

• tactile encoding: using the feeling of touch when encoding information

  • ex.) remembering the texture of an object

• organizational encoding: processing information in terms of a specific sequence

  • this can take the form of lists, groups, or the focus between relationships

• elaborative encoding: pairing new information with prior knowledge

• semantic encoding: focusing on the meaning or context of the information

  • used with deep processing, one of the most effective encoding methods

• shallower processing is linked with weaker memory retention, while deep processing is the most effective for recall

• mnemonic devices help organize information and make it easier to recall

  • ex.) acronyms, visual images, associations, and rhymes

  • Method of Loci: mentally visualize and place items in a familiar room

    • ex.) visualize the presidents in your bedroom

    • uses spatial memory and vivid imagery to enhance recall

• chunking: involves grouping individual pieces of information into a larger, more manageable unit

• organizing information into categories or hierarchies helps the brain create connections between related concepts, making it easer to store and retrieve the information later on

• the spacing effect: the tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention than massed practice because it allows brain to better encode information

• serial position effect: order of learning information determines how well the information will be more remembered

  • primacy effect: information learned early will be remembered because more time to process

  • recency effect: information learned later on will be remembered because it is still in the working memory

  • middle set of information is often forgotten as it receives less rehearsal time

2.5 Storing Memories

• four stages of memory:

• sensory memory: briefest form of memory, captures a lot of sensory information, but only for a few seconds

  • location of the iconic and echoic memories

• short-term memory: typically holds around seven items at a time and usually for only twenty to thirty seconds

• working memory: a more updated dynamic form of the short-term memory stores and processes information

  • plays critical role in managing information

• long-term memory: has an unlimited capacity and stores information for long periods of time

  • includes learned information like facts, experiences, and skills

• frontal lobe stores explicit memories while hippocampus processes and stores temporary information before it is sent to different areas of the brain

• memory consolidation: a process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories

  • information is solidified and neuro-connections in the brain are strengthened —> easier to recall later on

    • often occurs during sleep

• cerebellum and basal ganglia play a critical role in forming and storing implicit memories

• there are two distinct memory systems: effortful and automatic processing

• emotions influence the creation and storage of memories

  • the body releases hormones that promote the creation of memories

  • flashbulb memories: very detailed memories that are often formed around events that are extremely stressful, traumatic, or emotional

• autobiographical memory: involved memories connected to our own lives that are generally more memorable because of the personal relevance these memories have

  • individuals with highly superior autobiographical memories hold extremely detailed, and accurate, recollections of their experiences

• brain damage can result in memory loss

  • this be caused by physical damage, developmental limitations, and diseases

• damage to the hippocampus can lead to trouble recalling explicit memories

  • damage to the left hippocampus often results in individuals struggling to remember verbal information

  • damage to the right hippocampus often results in individuals struggling to remember visual information

• amnesia: the temporary or permanent loss of memory

  • retrograde: an individual can no longer retrieve past information

    • can occur due to a head injury

  • anterograde: an individual can no longer form new memories

    • almost always involves damage to the hippocampus

  • source: an individual can remember information but is unable to recall where or how they learned it

  • infantile: an adult cannot remember personal experiences from the early years of life

    • memories from infant and toddler years fade as individuals age because the brain was underdeveloped when these memories were initially formed

• alzheimer’s disease: a neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory and cognitive functions of an individual

  • disrupts storage and retrieval of both new and old memories

2.6 Retrieving Memories

• memory retrieval: accessing memories that have been in storage

  two forms of retrieval:

  • recall: retrieving information without any cues or hints, relies solely on the internal memory

    • ex.) giving out a phone number (no retrieval cues present)

  • recognition: using retrieval cues to help access the information

    • ex.) recognizing the correct option on a multiple-choice exam

• the memory retrieval process can be influenced by an individual’s environment, mood, and physical state

• memory recall can be enhanced when the conditions during recall match the conditions present during the encoding of a memory

• context-dependent memory: retrieval is improved when an individual’s environment is the same as when the information was first learned

• mood-congruent memory: an individual is more likely to recall memories that match their current mood

  • ex.) when happy or sad, it is easier to recall positive or negative memories

• state-dependent memory: memory retrieval is improved if an individual is in the same mental or physical state as when the memory was encoded

  • ex.) when ill, it is easier to recall past memories of being sick in past

• associating new information with old information strengthens retrieval cues and the likelihood of successful retrieval

  • ex.) learning classmate’s names based on where they sit in class, their hair color, or any shared interests

• practicing metacognition can improve retrieval processes

  • reflecting on learning and thinking processes allows you to recognize when you truly understand and what you are struggling with

2.7 Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges

• the forgetting curve states that forgetting generally happens rapidly after learning new information

  • however, this can be countered with reinforcement and review —> emphasizes the significance of distributed practice

• tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: when an individual knows a piece of information but is unable to think of the exact name

  • ex.) hearing a song, but being unable to recall the name

• memory can be impaired by a multitude of ways

  • proactive interference: when older memories interfere with the recall of newer memories

    • forward acting

  • retroactive interference: new memories interfere with the recall of older memories

    • backwards acting

• repression: pushing unpleasant thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind to avoid distress

  • ex.) repressing embarrassing memories and being unable to recall them when asked

  • psychodynamic theorists believe that memories and information can be repressed to defend the ego from distress

  • will still influence emotions and behavior, appearing in dreams and therapy

• defense mechanisms allow the ego to protect itself and reduce anxiety

  • generally focus on unconsciously distorting reality

• constructive memory: when we remember information, the brain combines actual stored information with elements such as assumptions, expectations, and new information

  • reconsolidation: the process of altering memories that have been recalled before being stored

• misinformation effect: if an individual does alter a memory with misleading or false information it can distort the memory

2.8 Intelligence and Achievement

• no one set way to measure intelligence

• intelligence: the ability to learn from experiences, adapt to new situations, solve problems, and apply knowledge in a variety of different contexts

• is intelligence a general ability (g) or is it comprised of multiple abilities?

  • if people perform well in one area, they tend to perform better in another vs. intelligence not being a single trait, but distinct skills like emotional intelligence, creativity, and practical problem-solving

• cohort:

• fluid intelligence: the ability to quickly reason and breakdown abstract problems

  • decreases as an individual ages

• crystallized intelligence: the accumulated knowledge and verbal skills an individual possesses

  • increases as an individual ages

• individuals with a fixed mindset believe intelligence is a trait one is born with and it cannot change, potentially limiting an individual

• individuals with a growth mindset believe intelligence can be developed through effort and experiences, leading them to seek growth opportunities

• early intelligence tests introduced the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ)

  • IQ = mental age/actual age x 100

  • IQ tests have since evolved and are no longer based on one’s mental age, instead they compare an individual’s performance to others in the same group using a standardized scale

• socio-culturally responsive: minimize bias and reduce negative impacts in IQ tests

  • stereotype threats: an individual may feel at risk for confirming negative stereotypes about their social group

  • stereotype lift: an individual benefits from positive stereotypes about thei social group

• in order for IQ tests to be relevant and beneficial to an individual they must follow the psychometric principles:

  • reliability: the test produces consistent results each time it is administered

    • test-retest reliability: refers to the consistency of test results over time when the same individual takes the test again

    • split-half reliability: refers to the consistency of results within the test itself, such as comparing the results from two halves of the same test

      • there should be a high correlation between multiple sections of the same test, showing that the test is correlated with itself

  • validity: the extent to which a test or or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

    • content validity: the extent to which at test inquires about the information or behaviors that are of interest of the test

    • construct validity: the degree in which a test can actually measure a specific trait or concept

      • this ensure the test accurately measures the specific concept or trait it is supposed to

    • criterion validity: checks to see if the test correlates with any outside variables or measures

      • if this is low, the test may not be valid

    • predictive validity: predicts future performance

      • can only be used when there is a large data set

      • used to accurately predict trends and patterns

  • standardization: allow tests to be administered in a consistent manner

    • procedures and testing environment must be the same for all individuals to reduce bias and have a fair comparison

• flynn effect: the global rise in IQ scores is due to people having access to better education, economic stability, healthcare, nutrition, and learning resources

• there is often more variation of IQ scores within groups than across different groups

  • groups could be based on race, gender, or socioeconomic status

  • these differences between grouped individuals are often greater than the average differences found when comparing an entire group to another group

  • individual differences within a group are more significant than the average differences between groups

• achievement test: designed to measure what someone knows at a specific point in time

  • assess knowledge and skills one has already learned

  • ex.) an AP or IB exam

• aptitude test: aim to predict how someone will perform in the future

  • measure one’s potential to learn new skills and succeed in certain areas

  • ex.) ACT or SAT