lesson 8

• Review of key concepts:- Security, securitization, and various threats.

  • Security encompasses protection from harm, while securitization is the process of framing an issue as an existential threat, requiring immediate and exceptional measures. Threats can range from military aggression to non-military challenges like climate change, pandemics, and cyberattacks.

  • Traditional and new approaches to security.

  • Traditional security approaches focus on state-centric concerns, military strength, and territorial defense. New approaches broaden the scope to include human security, environmental security, and economic security, addressing threats that affect individuals and societies directly.

  • Human security.

  • Human security prioritizes the safety and well-being of individuals and communities, addressing issues such as poverty, human rights violations, and access to essential resources. It emphasizes the responsibility of states to protect their populations from a wide range of threats.

  • International terrorism.

  • International terrorism involves acts of violence perpetrated by non-state actors across national borders, often with political or ideological motives. It poses a significant threat to global security, challenging state sovereignty and international norms.

  • States of exception.

  • States of exception refer to situations where governments suspend normal legal and constitutional procedures in response to a perceived crisis. This can lead to abuses of power and violations of human rights, raising concerns about the rule of law.

  • Defining terrorism.

  • Defining terrorism is a complex and contested issue, with disagreements over what constitutes terrorism and who qualifies as a terrorist. Definitions often vary based on political perspectives and national interests.

  • Responding to threats.

  • Responding to threats requires a multifaceted approach involving diplomacy, military intervention, law enforcement, intelligence gathering, and international cooperation. Effective responses must address the root causes of conflict and promote sustainable solutions.

• 'Existential' threats are those that threaten the existence of a state.- Otherwise, it's a security issue that leads to securitization (e.g., ISIS).

  • Existential threats are perceived as capable of causing the collapse or destruction of a state, justifying extraordinary measures for survival. Securitization involves framing an issue as an existential threat to mobilize resources and public support for action.

Incels as Terrorists

• Examination of the relationship between online discourse in certain communities and the rise of misogynistic and fascistic ideologies.

  • Online platforms can serve as breeding grounds for extremist ideologies, including misogyny and fascism. Certain online communities may promote violence and hatred towards women, contributing to real-world acts of terrorism.

• Consideration of how this might affect the perception and formulation of international policies.

  • The rise of online extremism poses challenges for international policymaking, requiring new strategies to counter hate speech, propaganda, and incitement to violence. It also raises questions about freedom of speech versus the need to protect vulnerable groups.

• Reference to Chapter 15 of a textbook.

• Reference to Pearson, Elizabeth. "Extremism and toxic masculinity: the man question re-posed." International Affairs 95.6 (2019): 1251-1270.

• Application of constructivism (norms).

  • Constructivism emphasizes the role of norms and ideas in shaping international relations. Norms of masculinity and gender equality can influence how states perceive and respond to threats such as misogynistic terrorism.

• Finnemore, Martha, and Kathryn Sikkink. "International norm dynamics and political change." International organization 52.4 (1998): 887-917.

Arguments

• 'Masculinisms' dominate how we think about international relations.- They are normalized and influence our understanding of national security and the nation-state.

  • Traditional conceptions of masculinity often emphasize aggression, dominance, and control, shaping foreign policy decisions and national security strategies. Challenging these norms is essential for promoting peace and gender equality.

• Norms spread transnationally, similar to how human rights, misogyny, and ideology spread online.- This raises questions about respecting human rights versus regulating speech.

  • The internet facilitates the rapid diffusion of ideas and norms across borders, both positive and negative. Balancing freedom of expression with the need to combat hate speech and protect human rights is a complex challenge for policymakers.

• The definition of terrorism reflects majoritarian sensibilities and a Western bias in framing extremism, rather than considering toxic masculinity as a threat.

  • Dominant definitions of terrorism often focus on violence perpetrated by non-state actors from the Global South, while overlooking acts of violence motivated by misogyny, racism, or other forms of extremism prevalent in Western societies. This can lead to biased and ineffective counterterrorism strategies.

Types of Curricula and Learning

• Formal Curriculum:- Intended, official curriculum.

  • Coursework and classroom lessons sanctioned by the institution.

  • What an institution explicitly states and endorses.

  • Structured and intentional.

• Informal Curriculum:- Idiosyncratic, sporadic learning.

  • Unscripted, highly interpersonal classroom interactions.

  • Includes the daily teachings and communications between students and faculty members.

  • Ad hoc, variable, and interpersonal, but still intentional.

• Hidden Curriculum:- Lessons embedded in organizational structure and culture.

  • A set of influences that function at the level of organizational structure and culture.

  • Ad hoc, variable, and interpersonal yet unintentional.

• Null Curriculum:- What is not taught, which by its absence conveys the message that it is not important.

• Vicarious Learning: How students use the experience of others for their own learning.

• Adapted from Hafferty 1998, Lehmann 2018, Arora 2020, and McKenna 2020.

Toward a Neorealist Synthesis

• Reference to John Gerard Ruggie's work.

• Reference to Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics.

• Connection to Émile Durkheim's sociological method, emphasizing the "social milieu" as the determining factor of collective evolution.

Citizenship and Borders

• Enduring question: Why does the act of people moving from one place to another sometimes become a crisis?

Syria

• Syrian Civil War:- Began in March 2011, exacerbated by the emergence of ISIS.

  • The Syrian Civil War, which began in March 2011, was further intensified by the emergence of ISIS. This conflict led to widespread displacement and a severe humanitarian crisis.

  • Brutality of ISIS and the effects of the war led to over 10 million Syrians leaving their homes, either moving internally or leaving Syria entirely.

  • The brutality of ISIS and the devastating effects of the war resulted in over 10 million Syrians being displaced from their homes, seeking refuge either within Syria or in other countries.

  • Largest displacement in decades, constituting a migration crisis.

  • This mass displacement represents the largest migration crisis in decades, overwhelming neighboring countries and straining international resources.

  • Most people who flee across borders stay in neighboring countries.

  • The majority of Syrians who fled across borders sought refuge in neighboring countries, such as Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan, which faced immense challenges in accommodating the influx of refugees.

  • Approximately 700,000 Syrians were given asylum in Germany, an exception among European states.

  • Germany distinguished itself among European states by granting asylum to approximately 700,000 Syrians, demonstrating a commitment to humanitarian principles.

  • By 2019, 83% of the approximately 7 million Syrians who left had come to reside in neighboring states.

  • By 2019, the vast majority (83%) of the approximately 7 million Syrians who had left the country had found refuge in neighboring states, highlighting the regional impact of the crisis.

  • Lebanon hosted the most refugees from Syria per capita, whereas Turkey hosted the most in absolute numbers (between 3 and 4 million).

  • Lebanon, despite its limited resources, hosted the highest number of Syrian refugees per capita, while Turkey accommodated the largest absolute number of Syrian refugees, estimated to be between 3 and 4 million.

Population Increase in Europe

• Percentage of Population increase from 1960 to 2020 by country in Europe (source: World Bank).

• Luxembourg: +101%

Voluntary and Forced Migration

• Migration is caused by push factors (issues that make one want to leave, such as hunger or war) and pull factors (elements that attract one to a foreign state, such as safety or employment).

• When push-pull factors are weighed by an individual, along with an available opportunity or means to move, it results in people moving from one state to another, temporarily or permanently.

• Categories of migration:- Voluntary migration: those who could have stayed, albeit sometimes with difficulty, but decided to move abroad.

  • Voluntary migration refers to the movement of people who choose to relocate to another country, often for economic opportunities, personal reasons, or to improve their quality of life.

  • Forced migration: movements of people displaced by war, conflict, or oppression (significant push factor).

  • Forced migration involves the displacement of people due to circumstances beyond their control, such as war, conflict, persecution, or natural disasters.

• When forced migration occurs from state to state, it can lead to refugee status and the ability to apply for asylum in a foreign state.

• This category has begun to widen to include people displaced due to climate events and other natural disasters.

• No clear agreement on what a 'climate refugee' is, especially as many such examples are internally displaced people.

The UN Refugee Convention

• The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees defines a refugee as someone forced to flee due to persecution, war, or violence, based on five criteria:- Persecution due to race.

  • The UN Refugee Convention defines a refugee as someone forced to flee their home country due to persecution based on their race.

  • Persecution due to political opinion.

  • Refugees also include those persecuted for their political beliefs.

  • Persecution due to nationality.

  • Individuals facing persecution due to their nationality also qualify as refugees.

  • Persecution due to religion.

  • Those persecuted because of their religion are also considered refugees.

  • Persecution due to belonging to a particular social group.

  • The definition extends to those persecuted for belonging to a specific social group.

• It also outlines the rights pertaining to that status and defines states' obligation to protect refugees who may seek asylum in their borders.

• Defines the core principle of international protection: non-refoulement, meaning the refugee cannot be returned to a state where their life or freedom would be threatened.

• Example: Ilhan Omar fled Somalia's civil war, spent four years in a refugee camp in Kenya, and was eventually given refugee status in the United States in 1995. In 2019, she became the first naturalized citizen of African birth to be elected to the US Congress.

Key Terminology

• The UN Refugee Convention has five criteria for refugee status:- Persecution due to race.

  • The UN Refugee Convention specifies that persecution based on race is a criterion for refugee status.

  • Persecution due to political opinion.

  • Those facing persecution due to their political opinions are also eligible for refugee status.

  • Persecution due to nationality.

  • Persecution based on nationality qualifies individuals for refugee status.

  • Persecution due to religion.

  • Religious persecution is another criterion for granting refugee status.

  • Persecution due to belonging to a particular social group.

  • Individuals persecuted for belonging to a specific social group can also be recognized as refugees.

• Question: Should this include the environment? Gender? Sexuality?

• Voluntary migration: those who could have stayed, sometimes with difficulty, but decided to move abroad (pull factor).

• Forced migration: people displaced by war, conflict, or oppression (push factor).

• Ethnography: a method that allows researchers to gain insights by gathering detailed accounts directly from individuals.

Sampling and Political Opinions

• Questions regarding sampling:- What level of sampling is required to articulate political opinions?

  • Determining the appropriate level of sampling is crucial for accurately representing political opinions.

  • How many people should we talk to at a protest?

  • Assessing the number of participants needed to interview at a protest is essential for gathering comprehensive insights.

  • When do your political opinions change?

  • Understanding the factors that influence changes in political opinions is important for analyzing political behavior.

  • What's the relationship between sampling and outcomes?

  • Exploring the relationship between sampling methods and research outcomes is vital for ensuring the validity of findings.

  • What kind of bias is acceptable?

  • Identifying the types of bias that are acceptable in research is necessary for maintaining transparency and objectivity.

Regional Differences

• Comparison of New York and Philly sports teams and regional cultural differences.

Tricky Issues

• Common practice in all human history.

• Practices to limit, criminalize, securitize.

• State policies target supply, not demand.

• Policies increase vulnerability.

• Work, home, public.

• Security versus policing.

• State mechanisms ineffective.

• Policing uses different goals and practices.

• Questions:- What kind of war was the war on drugs? Is it over? How over should it be?

Citizenship (Biases?)

• Reference to reason.tv.

No Data

• Data issues:- The data sucks.

  • Data quality is often inadequate, hindering effective analysis and policymaking.

  • Not often centralized, too much information.

  • Data is frequently decentralized, leading to information overload and difficulties in accessing relevant data.

  • No centralized reporting agency globally.

  • The absence of a global centralized reporting agency further exacerbates data collection and standardization challenges.

  • Almost no one tracks expatriates.

  • Expatriates often go untracked, making it difficult to assess migration patterns and their impact on society.

  • Can’t track illegal things (trafficking, smuggling, black markets).

  • Illegal activities such as trafficking, smuggling, and black markets remain largely untracked, posing significant challenges for law enforcement and policymakers.

  • Only track security interactions = infinite budgets.

  • Focusing solely on security interactions can lead to skewed priorities and disproportionate allocation of resources.

• Question: Which is more beneficial: policies that are limited by being illegal, or ones that are accepted but taxed (prostitution, online gambling, marijuana, necro)?

Political Statements

• Examples of political statements on border walls from Kamala Harris and Joe Biden, followed by news of the Biden administration authorizing completion of the Trump-funded U.S.-Mexico border wall.

Citizenship and Borders during COVID-19

• COVID-19 pandemic not the “great equalizer” predicted by the WHO.

• Health, social, economic, and political impacts of the pandemic not experienced by everyone in the same way.

• Led to closing of borders, travel bans, debates on essential/non-essential workers.

• Broadly closed, essential services still took place, thousands of crossings per day.

• Prompted questions about citizenship and borders.

• Question: Would you be OK with perimeter security?

Florida

• Humorous reference to Florida.

Citizenship and Borders

• Reference to WLEAD Nexus 71.

Citizenship

• Citizenship:- Formal status within a national state.

  • Citizenship is the formal status of an individual recognized under the law of a national state.

  • Menu of rights and obligations defining one’s relationship with others and the state.

  • It entails a set of rights and obligations that define an individual's relationship with fellow citizens and the state.

  • Based on idea of limited and exclusionary state.

  • Citizenship is rooted in the concept of a limited and exclusionary state, delineating who belongs and who does not.

  • Interaction with borders (passport).

  • Citizenship intersects with borders, as evidenced by the requirement of a passport for international travel.

  • Makes borders critical: who is inside and who is outside.

  • Borders become critical in determining who is included as a citizen and who is excluded as a non-citizen.

Problematizing Citizenship

• 1946: Canada’s first Citizenship bill introduced.

• 75 years later, still struggling to describe what it means to be a citizen.

• Citizenship source of debate in theory and practice.

• Citizenship as a “slippery concept.”

• Inclusion and exclusion in a community.

• Reciprocal rights in and duties toward the community.

• Full participation in practice.

• Question: Should people who are born in a country have to pass citizenship tests?

Responsibilities of Citizenship

• Reference to https://www.yourlibrary.ca/citizenship/

• Obeying the law, taking responsibility for oneself and one's family, helping others in the community, voting in elections, serving on a jury, protecting and enjoying our heritage and environment.

Passport

• Questions about passports:- Should you get a passport at birth?

  • Exploring whether individuals should obtain a passport at birth merits consideration.

  • Should you have to pay for a passport?

  • The question of whether individuals should be required to pay for a passport raises economic and accessibility concerns.

  • Do different countries value passports more than others?

  • Investigating whether certain countries accord higher value to passports compared to others is worthwhile.

Problematizing Citizenship (1)

• Concept of citizenship traced back to ancient Greece and Rome.

• Athens defined citizenship as one who both rules and is ruled.

• Limited definition of citizenship:- Excluded women, slaves, foreigners, resident aliens.

• Political participation by citizens seen as civic duty.

• Citizenship-as-rights informed by 17th-century liberalism, American and French Revolutions.

• Liberty, equality, and fraternity basis of French citizenship.

Citizenship inherently illiberal

• ‘Citizenship is an instrument of political empowerment and identity building a calculated tool to tame populations, local and foreign to uphold the status quo of local and global injustice’

• Citizenship is a historically violent and ultimately totalitarian status of premodern nature

• capricious and random in assignment

• no room for choice or merit

• glorying in its sexism and racism

• it is the opposite of political emancipation

• Should the goal be to have rights without citizenship (religion?)

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• Greek and Roman origins

• ruled and ruler

• is it easier to not be obligated? leisure time?

• ‘male of known genealogy, a patriarch, a warrior and the master of the labor of others (normally slaves)’ – model our system and structures after this (Senates)

• Do we need more or less expertise under democracy?

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• Story of citizenship is a story of belonging

• Reinforces individualism, statehood, dignity, equality, and human worth (If you have it)

• tool for simplifying the world = 8 billion people

• reinforces individualism combination hood, statehood +dignity, equality and human worth

• also used to justify random violence, humiliation, and exclusion

• citizenship is first of all a tool for simplifying the world

• Are we better off with human rights through states?

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• ‘how should we solve the problem of foreignness?

• that's citizenship and democracy in a nutshell

• Supreme Court ruling on student loan forgiveness while banks are billed out

• government decisions on noncitizen residents

• economists debate costs and benefits of immigration

• sociologists argue about the (in)effectiveness of multilingual education

• classic political thought: foreignness is generally taken to signify threat of corruption that must be kept out or contained for the sake or the stability and identity of the regime

Foreignness

• The cultural organization of foreignness as threat and/or supplement is not exhausted by the types of foreignness examined here.

• To the foreigner as founder, immigrant, and citizen, one could add other categories—the foreigner as refugee, boundary crosser, terrorist, outlaw, repository of irrationality, erotic excess, madness, anarchy, and so on.

• But my goal is not to offer a complete catalog of the symbolic figurations of foreignness.

• Instead, my goal is to study in depth some of the uses to which foreignness is daily put on behalf of democracy.

• Since democracy is still thought of in predominantly national terms, this means we must look not only at texts of democratic theory in which foreignness figures, but also (as in Chapter Three on the Book of Ruth) at texts in which foreignness is put to work on behalf of national or subnational communities.

• Since much of the contemporary democratic theory literature theorizes democracy as a form of liberalism, we must look also at texts in liberal theory that use foreignness to shore up specifically liberal institutions and values such as consent (as in Chapter Four, when I discuss Peter Schuck's and Rogers Smith's part in American immigration debates).

Foreign-Founder

• In the classic texts of Western political culture (both high and low), the curious figure of the foreign-founder recurs with some frequency:

• established regimes, peoples, or towns that fall prey to corruption are restored or refounded (not corrupted or transcended) by the agency of a foreigner or a stranger.

• Moses appears as an Egyptian prince to lead the Israelites out of Egypt and bring to them the law from the mountain.

• The biblical Ruth's migration from Moab to Bethlehem reanimates the alienated Israelites' affective identification with their god while also beginning the line that will lead to King David.

• Oedipus arrives from elsewhere to solve the riddle of the Sphinx and save Thebes (temporarily) with his wise leadership.

• In The Statesman, it is the Eleatic Stranger who teaches us how to know the true statesman.

• In The Republic, the founding dialogue of political theory's interminable debate about justice takes place in the house of a foreign merchant, Cephalus, who is originally from Syracuse.

• Why is this the setting?

• Does Plato mean to imply that justice, or perhaps philosophical dialogue itself, is occasioned by engagement with foreignness?

• Later in The Republic, Plato has Socrates say casually that the myth of the metals, the Republic's founding myth, is a “Phoenician thing,” not unfamiliar and yet of foreign origin.

• In the Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau's lawgiver comes

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• Foreign-founder script

• regimes tell stories of themselves depicted as dependent on the kindness of strangers

• not an obstacle to a national project, it's a vehicle of renationalization (or denationalization for cosmopolitans – think Toronto as identity)

• foreignness does positive work for the regime – ‘civicness’, ‘openness’ or ‘closeness’

• is it better to vilify the other if it brings us together (US) ? Is it better to welcome the other if it undermines cohesion (Canada)?

Problematizing Citizenship (2)

• Image of a French citizenship card with the words "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité".

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• John Locke (1632-1704)

• Social contract:

• Consensual and contractual relationship between people and their government

• Citizens consent basis of political authority

• Citizens elect representatives, delegate powers, abide by decisions

• But ultimately, representatives are responsible to the people

• The absence of problems from reason

South Park Otters

• Reference to a YouTube video titled "South Park Otters Compilation."

Right and Wrong

• Simple statements and indications of what depicts right from wrong.

Smith's Reading of American Liberalism

• What is striking about Smith's reading of American liberalism is that its structure replicates the very mode of thinking that the author seeks to criticize.

• Out to discredit "ascriptive mythologies that can easily become demonologies," Smith produces an argument that is itself demonological in structure.

• The many violent crimes and injustices that mark American national history are not essential to its character as a partly liberal democratic regime.

• Those violences come from elsewhere, from other parts of the American polity.

• Ascriptive ideologies distinct from liberalism are responsible for the nativist, sexist, and racist citizenship laws and arguments catalogued by Smith.

• Thus, liberalism is insulated from implication in the unsavory elements of American political history.

• The real culprits, those other "traditions," are set up as Girardian scapegoats.

• Made into the bearers of all that liberalism seeks to disavow, they can now be cast out of the polity, which is then (re-)unified around this purging of its pollutants.

• That is to say, they are rendered foreign to the would-be, still-hoped-for, liberal democratic body politic.

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• Status is assigned at birth, not chosen and will remain unchanged for life

• Qatar – Citizenship allows the majority to oppress by justifying the status quo

• Juan – Born, lived in Minnesota, never left the country, was brought at three months of age, has no right to remain in contrast to his younger sisters born there (about 2.3 million people in the US)

• Dutch east Indies ladies marrying colonial natives, no right to return to the Netherlands

• if you fail to notify the Slovenian state when Yugoslavia collapsed you had no status even if you were born there

• Is citizenship a right or a privilege granted by a sovereign?

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• ‘Our world today is still a world in which the place in which we were born or where we live matters enormously, determining perhaps as much as 2/3 of our lifetime income’

• micro percentage swap countries throughout their lifetime

• ‘By attempting to localize a universal ideal of equality, citizenship is bound to undermine it’

• Largely based in gender and race (taxation and ownership)

• Where do you want to settle?

Schrödinger's Immigrant

• Image of the phrase “Schrödinger's Immigrant,” describing an immigrant who is simultaneously lazy and stealing jobs.

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• Human rights and universal values are aspirational and participatory

• North Americans as gatekeepers of a white settler nation

• ‘Race thinking’ is not just racial hostility, but also those ideas the state must protect itself from those who do not share its values, ideals of beauty and middle-class virtues - Vickers, Jill, and Annette Isaac. The politics of race: Canada, the United States, and Australia. University of Toronto Press, 2012.

• Chinese exclusion

• Quotas and restrictive policies for Japan, South Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean until 1967

Contemporary Political Debates

• In contemporary political debates, the pessimism about citizenship is often framed in relation to the increasingly restrictive barriers that are being placed on international mobility and on attaining citizenship itself.

• These restrictions are enacted through the twin dimensions of legality and performativity that we discussed above.

• The proliferation of citizenship tests across national contexts is a good example.

• Here, one's success in becoming a legal citizen is dependent upon the demonstrations of certain attitudes, dispositions, and values.

• Studying for citizenship is not about critical consciousness or becoming an active, let alone an activist, citizen, but is rather about learning and conforming to the 'correct' form of civic behavior demanded for newcomers.

• These misgivings about citizenship are not limited to how it erects barriers or excludes non-members, but also include criticisms about the present-day gap between the legal and performative dimensions of citizenship.

• As we have already mentioned, constitutional rights and duties that are not performed are passive rights and duties.

• Rights and duties are brought into being only when citizens actively perform them.

• The falling rates of voter participation, the widespread cynicism towards taxation, and the decline in military conscription are all key features in this passivity.

• Moreover, many of the rights of citizenship are being stripped away, often in the name of 'national security' (too risky to the polity as a whole to guarantee individual rights) or 'responsible citizenship' (some citizens are not worthy of rights because of their perceived behaviors).

• The traditional distinction between citizen and 'second-class citizen' is therefore giving way to a pluralized field of racialized citizens, neurotic citizens, irregular citizens, abject citizens, and so on.

Two Treatises of Government

• Reference to John Locke's Two Treatises of Government.

Citizenship-as-Rights

• WWI – Agreements made in secret by unelected representatives

• Paid for in democratic bodies (conscription for the British in Canada – BNA Act)

• Canada - WWI (625,000 served) WWII (1.1 million) Population 12 million

• Democratization of foreign policy demanded after World War II

Citizenship-as-Rights

• T.H. Marshall: three elements of citizenship:- Civil rights:- Necessary for individual freedom

• Political rights:- Right to vote and run for office

• Social rights:- Basic economic welfare and security

• Should declarations of war be decided by referendum, except in cases where you have been attacked first (Ludlow Amendment)?

Citizenship-as-Rights (2)

• Law and Parliament essential to civil and political rights

• Welfare state to social rights

• Adds a social dimension to citizenship

• Examples include public education, universal health care, public housing, income security programs

• Social rights gained prominence in Canada post-World War II (Heavily militarized populace?)

• Way of differentiating Canada from the US

• Health care and Canadian identity

• 2004 – Tommy Douglas voted Canada's greatest Canadian

Citizenship-as-Status

• Citizenship a question of legal status:- Who is born a citizen and who can access the right to be a citizen

• Should citizenship be limited or open to all people living in the country?

• Large-scale migration across Europe and North America

• Fleeing War, violence, poverty, climate disasters

• Concept of citizenship as a humanitarian crisis

Immigration Measures in Canada

• The Canadian government is introducing new measures to tighten standards on colleges, responding to criticism that Canada's education sector is bringing in so many foreign students that it's boosting pressure on housing and the labor market.

• The framework will push universities and colleges to set a higher standard for services, support, and outcomes for international students, starting in time for the fall 2024 semester.

• Schools that meet the higher benchmark will get priority for processing student visas, and adequate housing will be one of the criteria.

Jewish Refugees

• Canada apologizes for turning away a Jewish refugee ship in 1939.

• In 1939, the MS St. Louis sailed to Havana, Cuba, but the country's government refused them entry, although they had visas.

America Denied Refugees

• America denied refugees after the end of World War II, just as we are today.

Refugees 1933-1939

• Statistics of the countries that housed refugees and the numbers.

Resettlement

• where resettlement happened

• 1947 to 1951

• 329,000 people to the US

• 182,000 people to Australia

• 132,000 people to Israel

• 170,000 to various European countries

• 123,000 to Canada

• Highly selective, certain kinds of laborers and refugees with family ties

• Economic self-interest overrides humanitarian concerns

• Should this also be the case today?

Citizenship-as-Status

• As though presented as an equally distributed given, citizenship is never and has never been neutral

• always plays a crucial role in the strict policing of arbitrary boundaries of exclusion, especially race and sex

• Birthright lottery – the ticket places you in first class, business, economy or outside the plane

• QNI index

Nationality

• Table summarizing travel freedom ranking, settlement freedom ranking, internal factors, external factors.

• France has the highest nationality index ranking.

Citizenship-as-Status

• Citizenship as a spectrum

• Those born into citizenship versus those whose citizenship is in doubt or contested

• Precarious status of migrants, temporary workers, refugees

• Differing rules for citizenship

• Privileges some groups over others

• Canada’s point system: focus on education, marketable skills, French/English language skills

• What right do settlers have to close a border?

Problematizing Citizenship (3)

• ‘Our world today is still a world in which the place in which we were born or where we live matters enormously, determining perhaps as much as 2/3 of our lifetime income’

• micro percentage swap countries throughout their lifetime

• ‘By attempting to localize a universal ideal of equality, citizenship is bound to undermine it’n

• Largely based in gender and race (taxation and ownership)

• Where do you want to settle?

UNHCR GLOBAL FORCED Displacement

• 79.5 million forcibly displaced worldwide at the end of 2019 as a result of persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations, or events seriously disturbing public order.

- 26.0 million refugees