Unit 1+2 Euro Test Terms

Chapter 13:

anticlericalism: opposition to the clergy

indulgence: a document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins

protestant: the name originally given to followers of Luther, which came to mean all non-catholic western christian groups

spanish armada: the fleet sent by philip II of spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against protestantism. weather and the english fleet defeated it

the institutes of the christian religion: calvin’s formulation of christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for protestantism

predestination: the teaching that god has determined the salvation or domination of individuals based on his will and purpose, not on their merit or works

holy office: the official roman catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy

jesuits: members of the society of jesus, founded by ignatius loyola, whose goal was the spread of the roman catholic faith

huguenots: french calvinists

politiques: catholic and protestant moderates who held that only a strong monarchy could save france from total collapse

edict of nantes: a document issued by henry iv of france in 1598, granting liberty of conscience and of public worship to calvinists, which helped restore peace in france

union of utrecht: the alliance of seven northern provinces (led by holland) that declared its independence from spain and formed the united provinces of the netherlands

What were the central ideas of the reformers and why were they appealing to different social groups?

the babylonian captivity, the great schism, and papal conflict with german emperor fredrick II led to damage to the church leaders prestige and the church’s actions of supporting worldly matters and art instead also angered people. People also criticized the church and started to challenge the authority of the catholic church. these people, reformers, suggested reform to the church and doctrines and tried to emphasize individual faith and the centralization of the scriptures. they believed the scriptures should be the sole basis of christianity because god’s words were only revealed in the scriptures and not in church traditions. They also believed salvation was achieved through faith and not through sacraments like the indulgences. Educated people and humanists were drawn to this because they liked the fact that reformers emphasized interest on intellectuality and the Scriptures. Wealthy classes were attracted to it because they liked the idea of reducing the church’s power and wealth while peasants and urban dwellers were attracted by the idea of equality and oppression of the church’s corruption.

How did the political situation in Germany shape the course of the Reformation?

Martin Luther appealed to Germans through his sense of nationalism, so many people became Protestant. However, this led to religious wars since the ruling habsburg family and the then king Charles V was catholic. the reformation eventually led to religious wars between protestants and catholics. When Zwingli died in Switzerland, Charles V called for the Imperial Diet in Augsburg to stop the spread of religious division. He invited the lutherans and protestants but the lutherans made the augsburg confession and gave it to charles. Charles declined it which led to the Habsburg-Valois Wars. Charles became very successful in this war, so the pope and France started supporting lutheran troops. This led to the Peace of Augsburg by Charles which officially recognized Lutheranism as a religion and gave each territory the right to pick what religion they wanted to practice. The south stayed catholic and Germany became lutheran.

How did Protestant ideas and institutions spread beyond German-speaking lands?

Protestantism spread to various parts of Europe like England, Bohemia in Eastern Europe, and Denmark-Norway. Denmark-Norway became the first territory outside Germany to accept the reformation because danish scholars studied in wittenberg and brought Luther’s ideas with them. In england, Henry VIII wanted to break away from the Catholic Church because the Pope didn’t accept his divorce with Catherine of Aragon. (Pope Clement VII). He established his own church (the Anglican Church) which originally had Catholic ideas but then went on to become Protestant. In Eastern Europe in Bohemia, the population of majority Czechs were attracted to Lutheranism. Luther’s ideas came to German towns in Bohemia through the diversity of the territory and many bohemian germans converted.

What reforms did the Catholic Church make, and how did it respond to Protestant reform movements?

The catholic church started the counter-reformation which opposed Protestantism intellectually, politically, and institutionally. Popes like Pope Paul III also started to reform the Catholic Church by supporting improvements in clergy education and stricter control of clerical life. He also established the Holy Office which played a powerful role in the catholic reformation by destroying heresy and banning books that supported it (like erasmus). He also established the council of trent which tried to reconcile with lutherans and calvinists, gave equal validity to the scriptures and church practices as sources of religious truth, reaffirmed the seven sacraments, forbade indulgences, and emphasized preaching to the uneducated.

What were the causes and consequences of religious violence, including riots, wars, and witch hunts?

In france and the netherlands, religious conflicts started because protestants and catholics each believed the other was unholy and would anger God since they were with Satan. In france, the weak monarchy led to nobles taking advantage and adopting protestant ideas but catholic royal lords and calvinists antimonarchial lords clashed and religious violence erupted. This caused thousands of people to be killed and also led to agriculture decline, starvation, and more death. In the netherlands, spanish authorities tried to suppress calvinists by taxing the, so calvinists responded by attacking catholic churches. spanish authorities executed fifteen hundred men ruthlessly which angered calvinists and caused them to split the seventeen provinces (union of utrecht). The witch-hunts increased because of the extreme beliefs of the devil’s powers and the insecurity caused by religious wars. this eventually led to 100,000 to 200,000 people being tried (75-80% were women) for witchcraft and 40,000-60,000 people being executed.

Chapter 12:

Renaissance: a French word meaning “rebirth”, used to describe the rebirth of culture of classical antiquity in Italy during the 14th-16th centuries

Patronage: Financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works or works in specific styles

Communes: Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that sought political and economic independence from local nobles

Popolo: disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power

Signori: government by one-man rule in Italian cities such as Milan; also refers to these rulers

Courts: magnificent households and palaces where signori and other rulers live, conducted business, and supported the arts

Humanism: a program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature

Virtù: the quality of being able to shape the world according to one’s own will

Christian humanists: northern humanists who interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in terms of their religious traditions

Debate about women: debate among writers and thinkers in the Renaissance about women’s qualities and proper role in society

New Christians: a term for Jews and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula who accepted Christianity, they included Christian families that converted centuries earlier

The five powers of Italy were Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples in the 15th century

How did politics and economics shape the Renaissance?

Italian city-states became wealthy through overseas trade and they became commercial hubs. This economic prosperity caused wealthy and powerful merchant class families, like the Medici, to emerge. These families dominated the banking in cities like Florence and they spent their profits on the cities and urban industries, causing these cities to advance in many ways. These wealthy families also rules some of the cities in the five powers and many northern italian cities were communes with merchant guilds that kept civil order. The five powers dominated Italy and rules the smaller city-states, promising the cities prosperity.

What new ideas were associated with the Renaissance?

During the Renaissance, humanism and Christian humanism were developed. Humanism was the main intellectual aspect of the Renaissance and it emphasized the study of Latin and Greek literature to understand human nature. Within this, scholars looked for and studied people with virtù, or the ability to shape the world with their will. Humanism spread and became the basis of education for men. Similarly, Christian humanism developed in northern italy. This was similar to humanism but it believed Christian and classic cultures should be combined to reform the Church.

How did art reflect new Renaissance ideals?

Renaissance art mainly included religious beliefs, but some artists shifted to portraits of the patrons sponsoring the art or to pagan gods and goddesses. The art also began to be portrayed in more realistic ways through realism and artistis like Giotto portrayed the human body and face more realistically. New techniques were also introduced like oil paint, woodcuts, and more. Artists like Titian also began to use the art style mannerism which is when they distort figures, exaggerate musculature, and heighten color to express emotion.

What were the key social hierarchies in Renaissance Europe?

There were many social hierarchies during the Renaissance but the most essential ones were nobles and commoners along with race, class, and gender. Nobles often were the wealthiest class and they owned lots of land. However, wealthy merchants emerged after they started overseeing huge trading empires. They started rivalry with the nobles and the idea of hierarchy based on wealth increased. This hierarchy replaced noble and common hierarchy, but nobles still had higher status wealthy commoners. In terms of gender and race, women were often looked down upon compared to men and so were people of other races.

How did nation-states develop in this period?

After the Black Death and Hundred Years’ War, France and England suffered. To restore order, French King Charles VIII created the first royal army and he used it to control the nobles and came to an agreement about church and state powers. Similarly, in England, King Henry VII worked to restore royal prestige by crushing the noble power and establishing law and order. To do this, he selected small landowners and urban residents to be in the council instead of nobles. This way, aristocratic threats to the Crown and council were dealt with and left the country at peace. This, in turn, helped England and France become unified nation-states.

Venice, Genoa, Milan, and other Northern Italian cities became very rich through trade and they made advancements in shipbuilding which allowed them to sail faster and carry more goods. Florence, located on fertile soil along the Arno River, was a commercial hub that became wealthy by buying and selling goods throughout Europe. Merchants from Florence (Medici Family) took control of papal nanking at the end of the 13th century and they dominated European banking on both sides of the Alps (North African cities too). Florence was very strong in the 14th century, but King Edward III of England rejected his debts, causing Florentine bankers to go bankrupt. The Black Death affected Florence severely too.

Northern Italian cities were communes formed by merchant guilds who built and maintains the city walls, regulated trade, collected taxes, and kept civil order. The merging of northern Italian nobles and commercial elites created an oligarchy (a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution) that rules the city but rivalries among families created political instability. Popolo were heavily taxed and excluded from power, leading to resentment and attacks. The popolo established republics in many cities and they asserted their power with military leaders. Italian cities became signori but oligarchies remained the front of republics with tranches being limited to the wealthy class. In the 15th-16th century, signori transformed their households into courts, allowing them to show their wealth and power. Their celebrations were magnificent and elegant.

The five powers were all republics but they were ruled by one family or person. When one Italian state became more powerful, the other states worked to make a balance of power together. Venice and Florence were invaded by Milan and France, but the Dominican friar Savanorala already preached in popular sermons that God would punish Italy with this. As a result, Savanorala became the ruler of Florence, but people got tired of his strict rules and was excommunicated (formally excluded from the church's communion and sacraments) by the Pope and the Medici family returned to power. The French Invasion made Italy the center of the Habsburg-Valois wars, causing its cities to severely suffer. This led to centuries of subjection and it didn’t unify until 1870.

Humanists believed women should not recieve education because it wasn’t proper but women disagreed and they educated themselves in classics and argued in letters that reason that education wasn’t limited to just men. Castiglione’s The Courtier had a huge influence on education. It talked about what an educated man should do and be like and also talked about the characteristics of a perfect court lady. Machiavelli, secretary to a governing official in Florence after the Medici fell, was tortured after the Medici came back on suspicion of plotting against them and lost employment. Machiavelli published The Prince which talks about the necessities of a good leader and government. Medieval philosophies believed that governments should be judged on how they derive from God’s principles but Machiavelli believed governments should be judged on how well they maintain security and safety. Erasmus made a Latin translation of the new testament with the greek printed edition. The printing press was invented in 1440 in Germany by Johann Gutenberg. Printing press helped make books faster, making the book market expand and helped increase the literacy of laypeople.

Chapter 11:

The black death (why it occurred and how it spread):

The black death was a disease that came to Europe through Genoese ships. It first appeared in Western Europe in 1347 and spread to other parts. It was carried by ship and oftentimes ships would carry diseases or vermin like rats or fleas which caused diseases to reach different regions. People were already weak in europe due to cold weather and failed harvests resulting in malnutrition so more people easily contracted the disease through pneumonic transmission.

Black death (why it left some people off and how it led to ethnic-racial conflicts):

The black death led to inflation, with a shortage of food and higher prices. However, labor shortages caused by all the deaths allowed workers to demand higher wages. This allowed them to enjoy a higher standard of living and resulted in higher mobility for peasants in rural areas and artisans in towns. The black death caused ethnic-racial conflicts since people looked for scapegoats to blame the plague on. Christians thought that killing Jews would prevent the plague from spreading. So, they murdered thousands of Jews brutally and Jews were expelled from cities.

Late Middle Ages (why was it beginning of era of peasant revolution):

In France and Low Countries, fertile land was abandoned and in England, taxes were raised. Due to this, crime and new organizations made the economic problems worse. More common people were frustrated, especially peasants. Peasants already lived a burdensome life while enduring years of exploitation. The increase of taxes and other difficult conditions of this time frustrated them more and led to revolts.

Hundred Years’ War (causes and consequences):

It was caused by disagreements over land rights, disagreements over the succession to the French crown, and economic conflicts. Most of these conflicts revovled around the duchy of Aquitane, which was a french province that later belonged to england. the disagreement over french succession was about who would take the throne after Charles IV of France, who died childless. His sister had a child who was king of england so france chose to bar him from the throne. Eventually, war occurred. In france, thousands of people died and hundreds of acres of fertile land was ruined, leading to disrupted trade and heavy taxes. England faced a huge financial loss of five million euros, so they tried placing high taxes on wool, pricing wool out of the export market.

Church and Religion(why did its influence decline):

During the difficult times, many people looked to the church for comfort, but many of them only added to the misery by paying more attention to worldly matters. Therefore, members of the clergy started to question the authority of the Church and Pope and more people started relying on direct approaches to God. Papal prestige declined during the babylonian captivity and the events that followed led to the great schism. the great schism then led to more christians losing faith in their religion. It also brought the church disgrace and more scholars and professionals started to write and question the authority of the church. friar William of occam questioned the connection between faith and reason and argued against the papacy.

Chapter 11:

The black death (why it occurred and how it spread):

Black death (why it left some people off and how it led to ethnic-racial conflicts):

Late Middle Ages (why was it beginning of era of peasant revolution):

Hundred Years’ War (causes and consequences):

Church and Religion(why did its influence decline):

great famine: a terrible famine in 1315-1322 that hit much of europe after a period of climate change

black death: plague that first struck Europe in 1347 and killed perhaps one-third of the population

flagellants: people who believed that the plague was god’s punishment for sin and sought to do penance by flagellating (whipping) themselves

hundred year’s war: a war between england and france from 1337 to 1453 with political and economic causes and consequences

representative assemblies: deliberative meetings of lords and wealthy urban residents that flourished in many european countries between 1250 and 1450

babylonian captivity: the period from 1309 to 1376 when the popes resided in avignon rather than in rome. the phrase refers to the seventy years when the hebrews were held captive in babylon

great schism: the division or split in church leadership from 1378 to 1417 when there were two then three popes

conciliarists: people who believed that the authority in the roman church should rest in a general council composed of clergy, theologians, and laypeople rather than in the pope

confraternities: voluntary lay groups organized by occupation, devotional preference, neighborhood, or charitable society

jacquerie: a massive uprising by french peasants in 1358 protesting heavy taxation

english peasant’s revolt: revolt by english peasants in 1381 in response to changing economic conditions

statute of kilkenny: law issued in 1336 that discriminated against the irish, forbidding marriage between the english and the irish, requiring the use of the english language, and denying the irish access to ecclesiastical offices

The Decameron: describes the course of the plague in florence and identifies how the disease was passed from each person

Giovanni Boccaccio: wrote decameron

the little ice age: when europe’s climate became colder and wetter and this occured between the years 1300 and 1450

the dance of death: a literary and artistic idea that portrayed a dancing skeleton leading people away in order of their rank

Agincourt: where king henry V’s army defeated a large french army by using longbows

dauphin: heir to french throne. dauphins mainly refer to the eldest son of the king

avignon: where pope clement V settled permanently. afterwards, the popes lived here from 1309-1376

john wycliff: believed scriptures should be translated into english (vernacular)

vernacular: refers to loca language that people spoke instead of latin

dante’s divine comedy: en epic poem with one hundred verses that describe the realms of the next world (hell, purgatory, heaven), finished in 1321

Chaucer’s canterbury tales: a collection of stories in a lengthy narrative that reflects the cultural tension of the time (written in 1387)

peasants lost their land and migrated to towns after great famine

england did not become more united after the hundred years war

the root cause of urban unrest in 14th century was conflict between priveleged members of guild and the urban poor