exam 2

Philosophy 4 Study Guide – Exam 2

Descartes, “2nd Meditation”

-What is the difference between materialism and dualism?

Materialism posits that only physical matter exists, while dualism argues that both material and immaterial substances (mind) exist

-How does Descartes determine that he knows for certain he exists?

Descartes concludes he knows for certain that he exists through the famous phrase "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).

-How does Descartes argue that he is a “thinking being?”

Descartes argues that the act of doubting, understanding, affirming, denying, and all forms of thinking confirm his existence as a thinking being.

-How is the “wax argument” supposed to establish mind as better known than body?

Descartes uses the wax argument to illustrate that while the material properties of wax change, the perception and understanding of the wax remain constant, showing the mind's ability to know more about the nature of objects than the body can.

Ryle, “The Ghost in the Machine”

-What is a “category mistake” and how does Ryle use this concept to argue against dualism?

A category mistake occurs when something is attributed to a category it does not belong to. Ryle uses this to argue that dualism mistakenly places the mind and body in separate categories, misinterpreting mental states as ghostly substances.

Taylor, “Body and Soul”

-What sort reasoning does Taylor claim leads to dualism?

Taylor argues that the reasoning leading to dualism often relies on the separation of mind and body based on subjective experiences.

-What reasoning does he argue is better?

He suggests that a better reasoning is holistic, recognizing the interdependence of mind and body.

Nagel, What Is It Like to Be a Bat?”  

-What argument does Nagel make, based on his discussion of the consciousness of bats?

Nagel asserts that consciousness cannot be fully understood from an external perspective, exemplified by the subjective experience of being a bat, emphasizing the limits of objective observations.

Paley, “Natural Theology”

-How does Paley argue for the existence of god?

Paley uses the watchmaker analogy, arguing that just as a watch's complexity implies a designer, the complexity of the universe implies the existence of God.

Swinburne, “Why God Allows Evil”  

-What are the goods that Swinburne argues outweigh the existence of evil?

Swinburne argues that goods such as moral growth, free will, and altruism outweigh the existence of evil.

-How does natural evil fit in with the free will defense?

He posits that natural evil fits into the free will defense as a necessary backdrop for human moral choices.

“Pascal’s Wager”  

-What is Pascal’s “wager,” and how does Blackburn criticize it?

Pascal argues that believing in God is the rational choice because the potential infinite gain (eternal happiness) outweighs the finite loss (earthly pleasures).Blackburn criticizes this wager as overly self-interested and simplistic in its assumptions

-How does Zagzebski try to defend Pascal’s wager against common objections?

Zagzebski defends Pascal's wager against objections by emphasizing genuine belief and the moral implications of the wager beyond mere risk assessment.

Scriven, “Faith and Reason” 

-How does Scriven criticize the position that faith can be seen as an alternative route to the truth?Scriven critiques the notion that faith provides an alternative route to truth, arguing that faith without evidence lacks a foundation for truth claims.

McKim, “The Hiddenness of God”  

-What are the problems McKim blames on God’s “hiddenness,” and what does he conclude from them?

McKim identifies issues such as the absence of clear divine communication and its implications for belief, concluding that God’s hiddenness presents challenges in understanding divine existence.

Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 

-What objections does Philo raise to the design argument?

Philo questions the validity of inferring a designer from the complexity of the world, suggesting that it does not necessarily point to a specific type of deity.

-What are the main points Philo makes in his version of the argument from evil?

He asserts that the existence of evil contradicts the notion of a benevolent designer.
Stump, “The Desires of the Heart”

-What does Stump mean by “desires of the heart,” and how does she apply them to the problem of evil?

Stump refers to deeply rooted desires that drive morality and action, applying them to understand the problem of evil in the context of human experience.

Adams, “The Problem of Hell”

-What is the “problem of hell” according to Adams, and what is the picture of human nature that she bases it on?

Adams presents the problem of hell as a tension between human nature's inherent worth and the concept of eternal punishment, exploring the moral implications behind it.

Minas, “God and Forgiveness”

-What is Minas’ position on God and forgiveness, and what are her arguments in support of it?

Minas argues that God fully embodies forgiveness, providing compelling arguments for divine forgiveness reflective of human experiences of forgiveness.

Steven Cahn, “God and Morality”

-How does Cahn argue that belief in the existence of God does not establish that murder is wrong?

Cahn argues that mere belief in God does not establish moral truths, as moral commands stem from inherent values rather than divine edicts.

-How does Cahn argue that the Ten commandments are not morally right because God commands them, rather he commands them because they are morally right?

He asserts that the Ten Commandments are considered morally right not because God commands them, but rather God commands them because they align with existing moral truths.

Essay Questions: 2 of these will appear on the exam

1. Carefully explain the following arguments and one important objection to each of them: the cosmological argument, the ontological argument, the design argument.

   The cosmological argument claims everything has a cause, leading to a first cause, God. Objection: Why doesn't the first cause need a cause?

   The ontological argument asserts that God, as the greatest conceivable being, must exist. Objection: Existence isn't a predicate that makes something greater.

   The design argument suggests the universe's complexity implies a designer. Objection: Natural processes like evolution can explain complexity without a designer.

2. What is the “problem of evil,” and how does Swinburne attempt to overcome it using the free will defense?

   The "problem of evil" questions how an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God can allow evil and suffering. Richard Swinburne addresses this with the free will defense. He argues that free will is essential for moral responsibility and growth. Free will allows for genuine choices and the development of virtues, even though it also makes the existence of evil possible. Swinburne believes the greater good of having free will justifies the presence of evil.

3. How is the Turing test meant to support the idea that computers can think?  Explain Searle’s argument against that view.

   The Turing Test suggests computers can think if they can mimic human responses indistinguishably. Searle's Chinese Room argument counters this by showing that following rules to generate responses doesn't equate to true understanding or thinking..