Exam 3 Study Guide Flashcards

Chapter 11: Problem Solving

• What is problem solving?

  • The cognitive process of finding a way to reach a goal when you are not already at the goal.

• IDEAL Framework:

  • Identify: Recognize the problem.
  • Define: Understand the problem's nature.
  • Explore: Look at possible solutions.
  • Act: Implement a solution.
  • Look: Evaluate the results.

• Initial and Goal States:

  • Initial State: The situation at the beginning of a problem.
  • Goal State: The situation when the problem is solved.

• Well-defined vs. Ill-defined Problems:

  • Well-defined: Clear initial state, goal state, and operators (e.g., solving an equation).
  • Ill-defined: Ambiguous initial state, goal state, or operators (e.g., achieving world peace).

• Problem Definition:

  • The way a problem is framed or represented.

• Problem Space:

  • All possible states and operators that can be used to solve a problem.
  • Includes the initial state, goal state, and all intermediate states.

• Algorithms vs. Heuristics:

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution (e.g., mathematical formulas).
  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that may lead to a solution but don't guarantee it (e.g., trial and error).

• Think Aloud Protocol:

  • Participants verbalize their thoughts as they solve a problem.
  • Benefits: Provides insight into cognitive processes.
  • Limitations: Can be time-consuming and may alter the problem-solving process.

• Trial-and-Error vs. Means-Ends Strategies:

  • Trial-and-Error: Randomly trying different solutions until one works.
  • Means-Ends: Reducing the difference between the current state and the goal state.

• Mental Set:

  • Tendency to approach problems in a certain way, even if it's not the most efficient.
  • Can hinder problem solving by preventing people from considering alternative solutions.

• Functional Fixedness:

  • Tendency to perceive objects as having only one use.
  • Inhibits problem solving by limiting the range of possible solutions.

• Analogical Transfer:

  • Using the solution from a previous problem to solve a new problem.
  • Difficult to obtain because people often focus on surface features rather than underlying structure.

• Isomorphic Problems: Problems with the same underlying structure but different surface features.

• Insight:

  • Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

• Insight Problems: Problems that require insight to solve.

  • Characterized by a period of impasse followed by a sudden breakthrough.

• Incubation:

  • Taking a break from a problem can lead to insight.

• Three-Process Theory of Insight:

  • Representation Change Theory: Representing the problem in a novel way. An example would be a matchstick problem where the way the problem is worded causes issues.
  • Progress Monitoring Theory: Knowing when you are getting closer to the answer. Someone walking down a hallway that is getting colder meaning that they are walking away.
  • Restructuring Theory: Changing the constraints around the problem to better attempt it.

• Novices vs. Experts:

  • Novices: Use general problem-solving strategies.
  • Experts: Have a deep understanding of their domain, use sophisticated strategies, and recognize patterns quickly.

• Improving Problem Solving:

  • Practice, seek diverse experiences, break down complex problems, and challenge assumptions.

• Fixation/Conformity:

  • Tendency to focus on irrelevant information or conform to others' ideas.
  • Overcome by actively seeking alternative perspectives and challenging assumptions.

• Mind-wandering/Absentmindedness:

  • Can hinder problem solving by diverting attention from the task at hand.

Chapter 12: Reasoning

• What is reasoning?

  • Drawing conclusions from evidence.

• Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning:

  • Deductive: Drawing specific conclusions from general principles (guaranteed conclusion).
  • Inductive: Drawing general conclusions from specific observations (probable conclusion).

• Syllogistic Reasoning:

  • Evaluating whether a conclusion follows logically from two premises.

• Premises and Conclusions:

  • Premises: Statements that provide evidence.
  • Conclusion: Statement that is evaluated for its validity.

• Factors Influencing Accuracy:

  • Believability, wording, and complexity of the premises.

• Conditional Reasoning:

  • Evaluating whether a conclusion follows from a conditional statement (e.g., "If A, then B").

• Statements in Conditional Reasoning:

  • Typically involves "if-then" statements.

• Single-Process vs. Dual-Process Theories:

  • Single-Process: Assumes that reasoning relies on a single cognitive process.
  • Dual-Process: Assumes that reasoning relies on two distinct cognitive processes.

• Probability Heuristics Model (Single-Process): People make decisions probabilistically.

• Mental Models Theory (Single-Process): People construct mental representations of the premises.

• Analogical Reasoning:

  • Using similarities between two situations to draw conclusions.

• 2-4-6 Rule Discovery Task:

  • Participants try to discover a rule by generating number sequences.

• Verification vs. Falsification Strategies:

  • Verification: Testing examples that confirm the hypothesis.
  • Falsification: Testing examples that disconfirm the hypothesis.

• Dual-Process Framework:

• Two Processes:

  • Type I (Intuitive): Automatic, fast, and unconscious.
  • Type II (Analytical): Controlled, slow, and conscious.

• Scientific Reasoning:

  • Generating and testing hypotheses in a systematic way.

  • Three Types of Claims:

    • Descriptive, causal, and theoretical.

Chapter 13: Decision Making

• Goals:

  • Desired outcomes that guide behavior.

• Positive Effects of Goals:

  • Increase motivation, focus attention, and improve performance.

• General Model of Decision Making:

  1. Setting Goals
  2. Gathering Information
  3. Structuring the Decision
  4. Making the Final Choice
  5. Evaluating the Outcome

• Heuristics:

  • Mental shortcuts that simplify decision making.
  • Used because they are quick and efficient, but can lead to biases.

• Stereotypes:

  • Generalized beliefs about a group of people.

• Representative Heuristic:

  • Judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype (e.g., assuming someone is a librarian because they are quiet and wear glasses).

• Availability Heuristic:

  • Judging the probability of an event based on how easily it comes to mind (e.g., thinking that plane crashes are more common than car crashes because they receive more media coverage).

• Anchoring Effects:

  • Tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions (e.g., negotiating a price).

• Framing Bias:
  Distortion that occurs depending on presentation of information-positive or negative.

• Loss Aversion Bias:
  Feeling worse about experiencing a loss than feeling good about an equivalent gain.

• Ideal Decision-Making Model:

  • A rational approach that involves identifying all possible options, evaluating their costs and benefits, and choosing the option that maximizes utility.

  • Limitation: Assumes that people have unlimited time, resources, and cognitive capacity.

• Elimination-by-Aspects Strategy:

  • Eliminating options based on specific criteria until only one option remains.

• Expected Utility Theory:

  • Decision-making model that assumes people choose the option that maximizes their expected utility (i.e., the product of the probability of an outcome and its value).

• Prospect Theory:

  • Decision-making model that describes how people make choices when there are known probabilities of gains and losses.

• Prospect of Gains/Losses:

  • People are more risk-averse when considering gains and more risk-seeking when considering losses.

• Satisficing:

  • Choosing the first option that meets a minimum set of requirements.

• Dual-Process Framework (Type I & Type II):

  • Type I (Intuitive): Automatic, fast, and unconscious.
  • Type II (Analytical): Controlled, slow, and conscious.

• Temporal Discounting:
  Tendency to value future outcomes less than present ones.

• Decoy Effect:
  Adding an inferior option to influence preferences between two choices.

• Conjunction Fallacy:
  Believing that a combination of events is more likely than a single event.
  Example: Linda is a bank teller is less probable than Linda is a Bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.

Chapter 14: Development

• Habituation:

  • Decreased response to a repeated stimulus.

• Habituation Technique:

  • Used to study infant cognition by measuring how long infants look at a stimulus.

• Violation-of-Expectation:

  • Infants are shown an event that violates their expectations.

• Understanding Infant Cognition:

  • If infants look longer at the unexpected event, it suggests that they are aware of the expected event.

• Process of Language Development:

  • Babbling, single words, two-word phrases, and complex sentences.

• Telegraphic Speech:

  • Two-word phrases that convey essential meaning (e.g., "more juice").

• Interactionist Approach to Language Development:

  • Language development is influenced by both biological and social factors.

• Role of Cues:

  • Social cues, such as gestures and facial expressions, help infants learn language.

• Implicit vs. Explicit Memory Development:

  • Implicit: Gradual and unconscious development of skills and habits.
  • Explicit: Conscious and intentional recollection of facts and events.

• Childhood Amnesia:

  • Inability to remember events from the first few years of life.

• Reason for Amnesia:

  • Brain development, language development, and changes in self-awareness.

• Influence of Knowledge:

  • Prior knowledge influences how we encode, store, and retrieve memories.

• Development of Working Memory:

  • Increases throughout childhood and adolescence.

• Development of Semantic Memory:

  • Accumulates throughout the lifespan.

• Effects of Aging:

  • Episodic Memory: Declines with age.
  • Semantic Memory: Relatively stable with age.
  • Executive Functioning: Declines with age.

• Younger vs. Older Adults in Prospective Memory (PM):

• Reason for Difference in PM:

  • Older adults may have difficulty with working memory and executive functioning.

• Development Process of Deductive & Inductive Reasoning:

  • Improves throughout childhood and adolescence.