Chapter 2-Test One Study Guide

The Counseling Professions in Historical Perspective

1. The Significance of Understanding the History of the Mental Health Professions

   1. Return to the Journey Metaphor

   2. Understanding who you are and where you are going is facilitated when you know where you have been

   3. “To ignore the past is to cut off a source of self-understanding.” (Leahey, 1980, p. 14)

2. Early Views and Treatment of Mental Health and Illness

   1. Archaeological findings: trephines

   2. Old Testament perspectives about “madness”

   3. Greek philosophy: Hippocrates (460-377 BC)

                                              1.     Believed that imbalances in four bodily fluids (blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm) produced behavioral aberrations

2. Middle Ages 

                                              1.     The person is the battleground between forces of good and evil.

                                              2.     Witchcraft and the “water test”

                                              3.     Colony of Gheel (Belgium, 1300s)- humane treatment for the mentally ill

2. 1600s- development of asylums with deplorable conditions

3. 1700s- calls for “moral treatment”

                                              1.     Benjamin Rush

                                              2.     Phillipe Pinél

                                              3.     William Tuke

3. Emergence of the Helping Professions

   1. Psychiatry

                                              1.     The Asylum Supervisors were members of the medical profession.

                                              2.     In 1844, they created the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane (AMSAII) and advocated for moral treatment.

                                              3.     The Rise and Influence of Neurologists

a.      Convinced AMSAII to phase out hiring of non-scientifically trained MDs as supervisors

                                              4.     American Medico-Psychological Association (1892)

                                              5.     American Psychiatric Association (1927)

                                              6.     Important Contributions of Early Psychiatry

a.      Cause and cure for paresis (syphilis of the brain) was discovered, leading to the belief that other mental illnesses might have biological roots.

b.     Freud, a neurologist, found that “talking therapies” could treat nervous conditions.  He established the Institute of Psychoanalysis.

c.      Emil Kraepelin developed the first major classification system for mental illnesses.

3. Psychology

                                              1.     Has its roots in philosophy

                                              2.     1879:  Wilhelm Wundt- first psychological laboratory

a.      Defined psychology as the study of immediate experience

                                              3.     1892:  American Psychological Association formed by philosophers, educators, and physicians

                                              4.     1896:  Leightner Witmer- first psychological clinic

a.      Creates term “clinical psychology”

                                              5.     1908:  William Healy- the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute

a.      Utilizes a multidisciplinary approach

3. Social Work (late 1880s)

                                              1.     Charity Organization Society– help others to help themselves through a process called “friendly visiting” (precursor to case management)

                                              2.     Settlement House movement– help others through creation of a just society

a.      This was to be accomplished through “social action” (i.e. advocacy).

4. Professionalization of Counseling

   1. 1908:  Frank Parsons: vocational counseling

                                              1.     Boston Vocational Bureau

                                              2.     Interview and Questionnaire methods

                                              3.     Integrated an ecological approach

4. 1908: Clifford Beers, A Mind that Found Itself

5. The private practice of Psychology

6. 1920s:  Marriage and Family Counseling

                                              1.     Abraham and Hannah Stone opened first marriage clinic in NYC

                                              2.     Paul Popenoe developed American Institute for Family Relations

4.  1942: Carl Rogers’ book Counseling and Psychotherapy expounds upon the importance of the therapeutic relationship

5. Impact of the World Wars

                                              1.     Psychiatry demonstrated its ability to treat persons experiencing the traumas of war.

                                              2.     Psychology demonstrated its role in the development and use of tests for placement of persons within the armed forces.

                                              3.     Counseling and psychology worked together to assist persons returning to civilian life after WWII.

                                              4.     Master’s level counselors were shut out from VA training sites as the VA funded doctoral-level internships only.  This was because APA endorsed a training model where clinical psychologists were required to receive a doctoral degrees

5. Professional Organizations:  The Development of Professional Identity

   1. 1952:  American Personnel and Guidance Association

                                              1.     Formed from the merger of four professional organizations

                                              2.     Provided a professional home for master’s-level counselors

                                              3.     Established CACREP to demonstrate a clearly defined training model

                                              4.     Created NBCC so counselors could demonstrate competency by achieving certification

                                              5.     Created codes of ethics to regulate the profession

                                              6.     Later became the American Counseling Association (ACA)

6. Expansion of Mental Health Counseling

   1. 1950s-1960s

                                              1.     Problems with mental health hospitals in the 1950s- inhumane care and calls for reform

                                              2.     Increased effectiveness of psychopharmacological intervention

                                              3.     New theories and techniques in counseling developed

6. 1950s-1960s

                                              1.     The Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963

a.      Established nationwide network of mental health centers

b.     Mandated five services: short-term care, outpatient treatment, partial hospitalization, crisis intervention, consultation and education

c.      Increased need for and use of professional counselors in a variety of community settings  

6. 1970s-present

                                              1.     1976:  Development of AMHCA- 13^th Division of the ACA

                                              2.     1976:  Virginia is the first state to license professional counselors

                                              3.     1981:  CACREP was established and began to accredit master’s programs in community and other agency settings (CCOAS)

                                              4.     1994: CACREP distinguished between community counselors and mental health counselors.

                                              5.     2009: CACREP merged mental health and community counseling

                                              6.     Present: Licensure in professional counseling is available in all 50 states

7. Contemporary Trends

   1. Managed care emphasizes cost-effectiveness, which places master’s-level counselors in a good position

   2. Applications of technology in basic research, mental health services, and counselor education and supervision

   3. Positive psychology and increased emphasis on mental health and wellness

   4. Emergency management systems and disaster response (e.g., post-9/11 and Hurricane Katrina era)

   5. Development of Associate/Limited Licenses in counseling