History of Psychology Flashcards

Phrenology (Gall)

• Skull shape determines character.
• Different parts of the brain and their size determine traits and the strength of those traits.
• Used to identify criminals.
• Philoprogenitive Ness: Parental love/protection is instinct.

Craniometry (Broca)

• Measurement of skull shape.
• Used to compare individuals to make claims about intelligence, race, or personality.

Nurture (Locke)

• Environment, upbringing, education, and culture shape a person.
• Tabula rasa (blank slate).

Panopticon (Bentham)

• Internalized surveillance.
• Watchtower in the middle of a circular prison, set to watch prisoners without their knowledge.
• Prisoners start to regulate their own behavior in fear they might be watched.

Constitutional Psychology (Sheldon)

Belief that personality and body type (somatotypes) are linked.

• Endomorph (round, soft, more fat): Slow moving, complacent.
• Mesomorph (Muscular, athletic): Assertive, energetic, bold.
• Ectomorph (thin, fragile): Self-conscious, restrained.

Variables

• Independent variable: What is being changed by the researcher (the cause).
• Dependent variable: The effect.
• Hypothesis: What we are testing.

Norman Triplett (1897)

• Social facilitation: Positive effect of observers on an individual's performance.
• Experiment stimulated a real-life situation and concealed the aim of the experiment.

Social Psychology

• Definition: "The scientific attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others." (Gordon Allport, 1954)

Conformity

• When a person changes their behavior, beliefs, or attitudes to match those of a group due to real or imagined pressure.

Autokinetic Effect (Sherif, 1935)

• Studies conformity in ambiguous situations.
• Participants were placed alone in a dark room and asked how far the light "moved" (it didn't—just the illusion).
• Then they were placed in groups and asked the same question aloud.
• Findings: When they were alone, estimates varied widely, but in groups, the estimates converged over time, forming a group norm.

Obedience

• Adolf Eichmann’s trial inspired psychologist Stanley Milgram to conduct his famous obedience experiments after he said in his trial that he was “just following orders” referring to the holocaust.
• Milgram experiment included a participant, a confederate participant, and randomly assigned one of them to be the teacher.
• Assigned by a slip of paper labeled teacher, but both slips actually said teacher, as the confederate was automatically assigned as the learner.
• The learner was shocked.
• The teacher's job was to control the shock and read a list of word pairs to the learner, and the learner would have to remember the pairs.
• With each mistake, voltage increased.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Francis Galton believed intelligence was inherited (nature).
• Nurture is supported by behaviorism and social learning theory.

Little Albert (John Watson)

• Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, scary noise.
• Demonstrated that emotions can be learned through conditioning; unethical study.

Pygmalion Effect (Rosenthal)

• Social psychology: Expectations can influence outcomes.
• Studied how teacher expectations can shape student performance because teachers unknowingly gave them more attention, encouragement, and better feedback.

Hawthorne Effect

• Change in behavior when people know they are being observed.
• Often improvement; in the study, workers' performance improved no matter what changes were made as long as they knew they were part of the study.
• Observation can distort results in experiments, and when they were put alone again, the participants stuck to the group's average, thus they have conformed.

Conformity (Asch)

• Conformity in unambiguous situations with a clear correct answer (matching length of line to one of the three comparison lines with an obvious answer).
• In groups, confederates all gave the wrong answer deliberately, and the participant answered last.
• Results: 75% of the participants conformed at least once by giving the wrong answer.
• Even though the situation was unambiguous, participants still conformed due to normative social influence, the desire to fit in.
• Participants often privately disagreed but went along with the group to avoid standing out.

Reasons for Conformity

• Motivation: Wanting to be right, making a good impression which leads to…
• Informational influence: Conformity increased if there were neutral trials, like if the confederates first started by getting the answers right.
• Normative influence: When promising a reward to the most accurate groups => conformity doubled.

Milgram Experiment Results

• 62.5% continued shocks at the highest level.
• This decreased to 30% when the subject had to hold a victim's hand to the shock when they were in the same room => increase in proximity leads to a decrease in obedience.

Authoritarian Personality

• Harsh discipline during childhood produced emotional dependence and obedience in the child.
• But child develops love and hate towards parents.
• Fear and guilt act in thus anger, thus anger is displaced onto weaker people.

Peer Pressure

• Out of 3 teachers, 2 refused to take part till the end; thus, only 10% carried on.
• If two teachers give all the shocks to the end, the other one had a 92% of obedience.

Crowd Psychology (Gustav Le Bon)

• When individuals become part of a crowd, they lose their sense of self and personal responsibility.

Types of Conformity

• Conversion (informational influence): Conforming because of belief that others are right, then changing their opinion.
• Compliance (normative influence): Conforming because of concern of how they will be perceived while privately disagreeing.

Independence vs. Anti-Conformity

• Independence: A person resists group pressure and maintains their own view but does not oppose the group.
• Anti-conformity: A person actively opposes or goes against group views; rebellious.

Factors Affecting Conformity

1. Whether it is public or not; public usually means more conformity.
2. Group membership; if people belong to a group (e.g., friends), the behaviors of others become a norm, and conformity decreases when the source of influence is someone who is not part of that group.
   • For example, people in the Catholic Church are less likely to conform with someone from a Protestant church.
3. Consistency within the group; if confederates are unanimous, they agree on the same thing, then conformity is higher.
4. Conformity drops even if the majority agree and some don't. This only applies in unambiguous situations.
5. Conformity increases as group size increases.

Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Cultural Psychology: Studies the way people are affected by their culture.
• Cross-Cultural Psychology: Compares psychological processes from different cultures to understand universal aspects and ways it shapes individual and group behavior.

Approaches for Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Etic approach: Examines universal behaviors.
• Emic approach: Focuses on behaviors that are culturally specific.
• Hofstede's cultural values.

Universal Biases

• Correspondence bias: The tendency to believe that people's actions reflect their personality traits or intentions even when the behavior can be explained by situation or context.
• Self-serving bias: The tendency to attribute success to internal factors and blame failures on external factors like bad luck.

Well-being

• Well-being is related to connections to culture, country…

Stanford Prison Experiment (Philip Zimbardo)

• Aim: Was to evaluate the causes of problems.
• Stimulated study ended early due to concerns and lack of informed consent, poor methodology, lack of controls.
• Depersonalization:
  • Prisoners were stripped of their personal identity and treated more like objects.
  • Made them feel powerless.
  • E.g., calling them by numbers instead of names, no individuality.
• Deindividuation:
  • Loss of self-awareness and sense of accountability.
  • The guards became stronger and felt less accountable as they weren't acting as themselves but as a guard.

F Scale (Theodor Adorno, 1947)

• Measures authoritarian personality test.
• Obedient people rank significantly higher on the F scale; obedience to authority, conforms more.

Criticisms of Adorno's Theory

1. Representativeness:
   • Sample wasn't diverse, mostly white, middle-class Americans.
   • Results cannot be generalized to other groups, cultures, or socioeconomic classes.
   • This weakens the external validity of the findings.
2. Acquiescence Response Set:
   • The F scale only used positively worded items, so people with the tendency to agree would score as authoritarian.
   • Use reverse-coded items to control for this.
3. IQ and F scores:
   • Lower IQ individuals have higher F scores; therefore, F score may reflect cognitive ability, not authoritarianism.

• Adorno's theory only focused on right-wing authoritarianism (obedience, dislike change, support tradition/conventionalism hierarchy etc.). Believe people should follow authorities and should be punished if they don’t.
• Left-wing supports social equality and justice, progressive.

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger)

• We evaluate ourselves by comparing ourselves to others to see how well we are, where we stand in social hierarchies, and if our behavior is normal or acceptable.

Types of Social Comparison

• Upward: Comparing yourself to someone better than you; can either be motivation and self-improvement but also envy or low self-esteem.
• Downward: Comparing yourself to someone worse off than you to boost self-esteem.
• Lateral: Comparing yourself with someone similar in ability or status to give a sense of belonging or norm.

Cognitive Dissonance

• Tension due to having two conflicting thoughts at the same time.
• Dissonance increases with the importance of the subject and strength of conflict.
• E.g., we believe something about ourselves, but our behavior is inconsistent with that.
• Tension is released by changing behavior, justifying behavior by changing thought, or adding new thoughts.
• Dissonance is most powerful when it is about self-image.

Ethics

• Respect for autonomy: Were they able to stop the experiment when they wanted?
• Beneficence and non-maleficence.
• Justice: Did the end justify the means? Was the result important enough?

Social Facilitation

• Improving performance in well-learned tasks in the presence of others and the deterioration of poorly learned tasks in the presence of others.

Ringelmann Effect (1913)

• Force exerted per person decreased as a function of group size.

Social Loafing

• Reduction of individual effort when working on a collective task. It is robust and pervasive.

Loafing Decreases When

• Supervision is obvious (Identifiability).
• The task is personally relevant (personal involvement).
• Partner effort.
• Intergroup comparison.
  • E.g., Zaccaro (1984) found the loafing effect was reversed when groups believed they were competing against another group.

Bystander Effect

• Finding that a lone bystander is more likely to give aid than any one of several bystanders.

Factors Contributing to Social Loafing Effect

• Diffusion of responsibility – similar to social loafing, transferring responsibility to someone else.

• Leader

• Can be trait.

• Behavior.

• Situational (depends on the situation).

• A leader who projects strength before trust can risks being feared and along with it a host of dysfunctional behaviors

• Affiliation vs. Competence

• Competence-skilled/efficient

• Affiliation- social skills-cooperation

Behaviour (Style) of a Leader

• Lewin et al (1939) categorized
  • Autocratic (authoritarian):
    • Strict/independent decision-making, expects obedience
  • Democratic (participative):
    • High affiliation
    • Balance skill and EQ
    • Shared decision-making
  • Laissez-faire (delegative):
    • Low guidance, trusting, flexible, only steps in when needed

Bystander Effect (cont.)

• Audience inhibition: Being self-conscious of others stops you from doing something.
• Social influence: E.g., if others seem unworried, you assume it's less serious.
• Strangers vs. Friends

Cognitive Model of Helping

• Attend to what’s happening.
• Define event as an emergency.
• Assume responsibility.
• Decide what can be done.

Ingham et al. (1974) Experiment

• Based on Ringelmann Effect.
• Control condition: individual pulling alone.
• Two experimental conditions: pseudo groups and real groups.
• They did this to provide explanations to explain Ringelmann Effect. Was it coordination loss or motivation loss?
• Coordination loss: the difference between pseudo group and real group pulling.
• Motivational loss: is the Difference between individual and pseudo group.
• Finding was motivation loss had a greater impact.
  • Replicated this but with shouting/cheering
  • Same pattern of results and social loafing to describe loss of motivation.

Zinger & Folkman (2013)

• Found a leader being disliked and being considered a good leader are only 1/2000.

Latane and Rodin (1969)

• Tested bystander’s effect by male subjects in waiting room who were exposed to a women yelling for help.
• Pairs were less likely to help than alone, and with a passive confederate, it was significantly decreased.

Latane and Darley (1970)

• Found that the presence of others inhibits people’s response in an emergency. More people, THE SLOWER the response.

Latane and Dabbs Findings

• More people stopped to help single females than for male-female pairs.
• Males helped more than females.
• Males were more likely to help single females than single males.

How to Increase/Decrease Helping (Bystander Effect)

• If the situation is clear and unambiguous.
• If the group of bystanders are friends.
• Females don’t tend to help one sex more than the other.
• Happy people are more helpful.
• Reducing anonymity.
• Seeing someone else help.
• Trained in helping profession.

Personality

• Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish one from another and that persist over time and situations (Phares, 1988).
• Consistent behavior patterns and intrapersonal processes of an individual.
• Characteristics and behavior that comprise a person's unique adjustment to life, include traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns

Four main temperaments:

• Sanguine (playful, sociable, contented etc.)
• Melancholic (anxious, unhappy, serious, thoughtful)
• Choleric (egocentric, impulsive, active, excitable)
• Phlegmatic (reasonable. Controlled, calm. Principled)

Interpersonal Relationships

• Positive feelings towards another person.
• Proximity/propinquity effects.
• Physical attractiveness.
• Similarity effects- dating couples

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

• Three components of love:
  • Intimacy
  • Commitment
  • Passion
• Ideal partnership has all three.
• Culture and attraction may vary.
  • E.g., Ting-Toomey (1991) Japanese participants rated the importance of romantic love lower.
• Love grows in arranged marriage (Indian).
• Love declines among those who marry for love (e.g., US).

Personality Characteristics

• Francis Galton (19th century)- went through the dictionary to build list of personality characteristics
• Sigmund Freud – psychoanalysis theory- shaping personality

Topographic Model

• Conscious, preconscious.
• Ego, superego, and Id is in our unconscious.
• Carl Jung discovered extroversion, collective.

Walster et al. (1966)

• For both sexes, good looks were the only variable that predicted the desire to go on a second date.
• They distinguished between passionate love and companionate love.
• Being attractive more important for women than men.
• While for men they like to emphasize material resources, buying gifts, showing off.

Colonization

• Comes in many forms:
  • Destruction of culture and language.
  • Genocide.
  • Assimilation.
  • Introduction of weapons, disease, drugs.
  • Racist portrayals and perspectives.
• “the violent denial of indigenous peoples to continue governing themselves in their own land” – essentially taking leadership.

Effects of Colonization

• Dislocation
• Marginalization
• Racism
• Overrepresentation
• Maori mental health is overrepresented
• Prevalence rates are high due to:
• Under reporting, under assessment, under treatment means sickness are less likely to be identified early => poorer health
• Racism in healthcare, not inclusive as healthcare only uses western models

Kaupapa Maori (KM) Research

• Is theory-driven and community-focused.
  Process
• How you're doing the project
  Kaupapa Maori Principles
  Tino Rangatiratanga
• Māori self-determination | making sure they have power control throughout the research
  Taonga tuku iho
• Cultural aspirations | acknowledging the culture
  Ako Māori
• Culturally preferred pedagogy | honoring Māori teaching methods; they must be reciprocal
  Kia piki ake I ngā raruraru o te kāinga
• Socioeconomic mediation | Māori and Pākehā power imbalances exist due to economic discrepancies.
  Whānau
• Extend family structure
  Kaupapa
• Collective philosophy | need to benefit the well-being of Māori culturally, socially, economically, or politically

Ata: Respective relationships between participants and community

Te Tiriti o Waitangi

• Najubg syre tge Research as us valued and uplifted and that Maori are seen as citizens and people of the land
• Kaupapa Maori research must overcome ethical and institutional issues (funding, grants) and working within western ethics and institutions.
• We must also as researchers navigate the system as a minority and ensure we are culturally competent.

Different Types of Research

• Research not involving Maori means the results don’t impact Maori.
• Research involving Maori.
• Maori-centered research produces Maori knowledge, and they are involved at all stages of research and is measured against western standards/methodologies as well as Maori standards.
• KAUPAPA MAORI RESEARCH:
• Maori are involved at all parts,
• Maori methods of analysis and perspective,
• Primary accountable to Maori standards and expectations.
• Kaupapa Maori means a maori way of thinking and doing research

Cultural Identity

• Cultural values and practices, the ways in which one regards the ethnic or cultural groups they belong to and prioritization of the individual and of the group = who you are in you culture
• Being proud to be Māori, belonging.
• Ethnic identity is the extent to which one identities with others of their ethnicity and culture= how important it is to you.
• Having a secure ethnic identity leads to positive outcomes, considered a protective factor
• Exploring ethnic identity can have negative outcomes

Maori Well-Being Should

• Have longer life expectancy
• Better health
• Increased cultural connection
• Te reo ability
• Thriving not surviving
• Actively engaging in culture, marae.
• Committed to learning/teaching, promote Kaupapa and tikanga

Perfectionism

• Adaptive positive
• Maladaptive more negative, NOT FLEXIBLE.
• Mauiui kotihithi matauranga maori is Maori knowledge. Knowing: impact of colonization.
• Social desirability

Mechanisms of Development and Maintenance

• Identity
• Cultural contexts
• Its all about being considerate
  *

Reasons why Māori Have Poorer health

• Lack of support.
• No place for spiritual and cultural practices
• Racism
• Negative perceptions of healthcare workers
• Services are limited in NZ
• Financial costs
• Transport
• Environmental barriers like rooms being unsuitable for whānau.
• Lack of cultural understanding
• Staff overworked- not empathetic

To Provide Better Support

• Increasing positive interactions with healthcare staff, having whanau there.
• Red: physical health | Tinana
• Green: relationship health -Whanau
• Blue: cognitive health | hinengaro
• Purple: spiritual and cultural health- Wairua

Psychopathology

• Is the study of mental disorder
• Mental disorders are relatively continuous/dimensional when modeled
• No correct answer to what a mental disorder is

DSM-5 Diagnosis

• List of recognized mental disorders and guidelines for diagnosis.
• Only describes signs and symptoms, doesn’t imply anything about causation
• Compromised definition: a MD is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individuals cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. MD are usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupation or other important activities
• DSM- 298 different MD
• Diagnosis is based off criteria

DSM Criteria

• -Five or more of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2 week period
• Symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important area of functioning.
• -The episode is not attributable from a substance or another medical condition -at least one major depressive episode is not better explained a schizoaffective disorder.
• There has never been a manic episode or hypomanic episode

DSM Symptoms-Example

• Depressed mood
• No interest
• Insomnia or hyper insomnia
• Fatigue or fatigue loss
• Feelings of worthlessness
• They have to meet the criteria but not all the symptoms- just a certain number
• DSM diagnostic reliability- ensuring same results even when seen by different physicians
• Symptoms that are common within multiple of the disorders are left out

Anxiety

• Is an emotion, and it can be adaptive
• Anxiety function to keep you safe but too much can be a problem
• Anxiety disorders include social anxiety, panic, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, PSTD, OCD.

Theory

• A scientific explanation of how something works
• Transdiagnostic mechanism- is a chunk of a theory that seems to apply across different diagnosis.e.g avoidance, hyperventilation, anxiety sensitivity

Anxiety Sensitivity

• Is when you get freaked out by anxious feelings
• Formulation- is a theory of an individual’s presenting problem. Like what they are experiencing, background factors, triggers which leads to treatment planning as this allows clinicians to understand the individual and not just the symptom.
• It is not just a diagnosis

A Mental Disorder Has Theses Features

• Clinically significant disturbance |THE SYMPTOMS
• Dysfunction psychology, biology or development (often assumed)
• Usually significant distress or disability (unable to work, socialize)
• Socially non normative

Limitations

• -Symptomatic heterogeneity – two people with no common symptoms get diagnosed with same MD
• Causal heterogeneity. – capture diverse patterns of difficulty under one label
• Very categorical
• Diagnosis is not causation in MENTAL HEALTH
• Clarks model- of panic, anxiety sensitivity
• Habituation- was first used in 1960s by Robert Fanz to study infants ability to recognize and remember stimuli.
• When you get used to something after experiencing it multiple times
• VoE was first established and used by Renee Baillargeon in 1980s
• VoE measures how infants represent, reason about, respond to events and its used to conceptualize how unexpected events may lead to learning by making them rethink

Normative Protest Paradigm

• Used on 2-3 year olds
• Uses puppets as confederate
• Two functions of imitation - UZGIRIS
• Cognitive function to promote learning
• Interpersonal function to promotes children’s sharing of experience with others
• Vygotsky (1934/78)
• General law of cultural development- every function in the childs development appears twice
• On the social level. Interpsychologically
• Individual level- Intrapsychologically
• Going from interpersonal to intra personal is the result of series of developmental events.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Is a childs development more influence by genetic inheritance or environmental factor and experiences.
• E.g play, interact with parents, peers, teachers which model behavior, language and problem solving
• Pedagogical vs observational
• Pedagogical is learning from formal teaching, and observationally from hearing/seeing it.
• Collaborative vs individual, which do they learn better at.
• Can be used peer to peer setup where each child is introduced to an alternative method of to observe reaction towards norm violation.

Minimal Group Paradigm

• Inspired by social psychology
• Can be used with infants, toddlers as well as older children.
• Manipulate in/out groupness of experimental models as well as the group membership the child participant.
• Effective method of assigning arbitrary group memberships(random) instead of naturalistic social markers like ethnic appearance language spoken.
• The Minimal Group Paradigm (MGP) is a classic concept in social psychology that shows how easily and quickly people form group biases, even when those groups are based on trivial or meaningless criteria.
• Humans’ intelligence is because of the social nature .

Instrumental vs. Ritual/Conventional Stances (Nielsen and Legare)

• Instrumental Stance
• This is when someone sees an action as a means to an end — it's goal-directed and practical.
  • This is when someone copies an action because it is socially or culturally important, not just because it "works."
• 5 learning strategies- Legare
• Learning through..
  • Exploration
  • Observation
  • Participation/collaboration
  • Imitation
  • Instruction
• 5 teaching types (Kline)
• Teaching by..
  • Social tolerance
  • Opportunity provision
  • Stimulus/local enhancement
  • Evaluative feedback
  • Direct active teaching
  • Definition: The Minimal Group Paradigm refers to experiments where participants are randomly assigned to groups (e.g., based on a coin toss or preference for a painting), yet still show ingroup favoritism and out-group discrimination.
  • The Normative Protest Paradigm helps us learn how people respond to peaceful, respectful protests — and what makes them want to join or stay silent.

Play

• Why do children play?

• Behaviours put into 5 play categories:

• Physical activity/rough-and-tumble play: Repetitive active by themselves or others

• Joint pretend play objects represent other things, imagination supports social interaction,

• Cognitive/creative/educational play Playing with objects if they played with an object designed for educational and learning purposes

• Social interaction play social interaction, songs, games engaging with other

• Other object play anything else

• Play between adults (behavioural setting: teacher and learner) = positive feedback which helps human learning and teaching. Learn instrumental/functional, social and cultural

Play pt.2(Haight and Miller)

• Showed that play is influenced by culture, family interactions, social roles.
• Play increases with age
• Pretend play: ~2 years.
• Children develop to create reason with imaginary situations to support creativity and innovation later in life
• Creativity: is the ability to re imagine

Play: (Mildred Parten)-six stages of play

• Unoccupied play ~3 months
  • Doing nothing, random movements or observe others
• Solitary play – 0-2 years
  • Plays alone, uninterested in others nearby
• Onlooker play 2-3 yrs
  • Child watches other play but does not join. May talk or ask questions
• Parallel play, 2.5-3.5yrs
  • Children play side by side but don’t interact directly
• Associative play children 3-4 years, interact and share toys but not well co-ordinated and do not have a share goal
• Co-operative play 4+ yrs
  • Play together with shared goals and roles

Jean Piaget

• Sensorimotor stage (0-2 yrs):
  • Functional play: repetitive physical activity using objects for intended purpose
  • Symbolic play 2 yrs , using objects to represent something else
• Preoperational stage: 2+yrs – games with rules

Torrance Test

• Measures creativity, it is a drawing task mark on criteria. The difference between play & education-Depends on how much adults learning goal constrains the goal and how much they control the flow of the activity.
• Cross cultural study findings
  • Higher SES has more pretense
  • More imagination in US than Italy
  • Caucasian has more pretense, more self assertive and Koreans is more attentive and less rules enforcement

Joint Pretending

• Child cannot do whatever they want, negotiation, agree existence, imagination play
• Joint pretending embodies basic structure of institutional phenomena and understanding logical and normative structure of institutional reality

Classical Developmental Psychology Experiments

• Model aggression learned from watching videos. Study uses simulated targets. Model shows bobo doll aggression, child follows + picks up hostile language

Visual cliff simulation to assess instinctive fear of heights

2nd study

• Non-verbal communication is important in determining child behaviour in uncertain/ambiguous situations.
• Emotions is a non verbal way of communicating. Infant is unlikely to cross visual cliff if parent looks worried, but will cross the cliff if they look encouraging

3rd study

Rather than learning to ‘fear of heights it’s more a death perception. As infants got older they didn’t want to cross the cliff anymore. Rather than learning to ‘fear of heights

so they found other ways to test fear of heights without the use of a safety glass, slopes/bridges etc

Attachment

• Babies whose parents respond to lovingly, learn to trust that their needs will be respected and in return respect and value others. In a stressed situation, stranger couldn’t comfort child when the mother left the room, only calming down during the reunion

• Harlow’s monkeys – studies types of surrogate mums *artificial Terry cloth mum vs Wire feeding mum, cloth mother was soft but provided no food / wire mother provided milk

• Findings- baby monkeys preferred cloth mother even though she did not provide clothes, only approached wire mother to feed.

• Concluding that- comfort and emotional security is more important than food in forming attachment

• When monkeys were raised in isolation, they were aggressive, loners and socially incompetent/find mates, incompetent mothers when re-introduced”

Bowlby

Psychoanalytic view that childhood experiences are important for development and behaviour in life. Our attachment styles are established early through the infant/caregiver relationship

4 Characteristics of Attachment

• Proximity – the desire to be near the people we are attached to.
• safe haven – rturning to the person when in fear

The Marshmallow Test

Showed the time spent waiting increased the proportion of children who resisted the reward decreased
Delay of gratification is support by effortful cognitive control and attention deployment strategies but also habits formed in sociocultural contexts like waiting for meals in Japan or waiting to open gifts in the united states. These are effortless

• Rituals improve children’s ability to delay gratification
• The attachment figure acts as security while child explores

1. Separation distress:

• Secure Attachment
  Child uses Caregivers as a secure base. Distressed when caregiver leaves, easily comforted on return, shows joy at reunion
• Cause: Caregiver is consistently responsive, warm and reliable
• Outcome: Good self-esteem, trust, and healthy relationships
• Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
  Child shows little distress when caregiver leaves, avoids caregiver upon return, and prefer a stranger over the caregiver.
  Outcome: emotionally distant
  Outcome: clingy and anxious interactions
  *product-based program -television shows that are heavily link to commercially available product- have few main characters,highly gender stereotype, action/adventure theme
  *Parasocial relationships- emotionally tinged relationsips with media characters that parallel real social relationships.
  *Characteristics of parasocial relationships- Character Personification, Social realism, Attachment