soc105 study guide ₍^. .^₎⟆ (copy)

Nature Debate

• Nature — biology as the basis of human behavior.

  • Predispositions, dominant traits, DNA, hormones, and reproductive capacities.

Nurture Debate

• Nurture — socialization as the basis of human behavior.

  • Common terms: learned behavior and institutionalized roles.

• Babies are socialized before they’re even born.

  • Gendered names, clothing, toys.

Definition of Sex

• Sex — the biological identity of a person.

• Female, male, and intersex.

• Biological sex usually triggers societal expectations for behavior.

Definition of Gender

• Gender — socially learned behaviors and expectations.

• culturally based.

• a continuum of feminine and masculine traits.

Case of David Reimer

• Born as a male named Bruce Reimer, as an identical twin.

• Both twins were circumsiced to prevent and stop infections, but David’s penis was cauterized entirely.

• A doctor suggested that the parents raise him as a girl and use sex reassignment surgery.

• Bruce was renamed Brenda.

• Later, when David found out, he was horrified and changed his name to David.

  • David became an advocate for intersex people.

• He died by suicide (shot to the head), and his brother, Brian, died by overdose two years prior.

Gender Socialization

• How we learn gender.

• Socialization — the process of learning norms and values.

• All societies use sex and gender as a primary category of social relations.

  • To structure relationships, allocate labor, assign power, and define identity.

• Gender is entirely culturally linked.

• Gender roles are assigned depending on a culture and its norms and values.

Identification Theory

• Children learn gender-appropriate behaviors, attitudes, and emotions by unconsciously modeling themselves after their same-sex parent.

• Children learn and internalize traits of their same-sex parent.

Social Learning Theory

• Argues that children learn gender roles through observation, imitation, and reinforcement.

• Children are rewarded for “gender-appropriate” behavior and punished for ‘‘inappropriate” behavior.

• Kids imitate same-sex role models (parents, teachers, media figures) because they see these behaviors as socially validated.

• Children are not unconscious and actively observe and choose behaviors.

Gender Doing Theory

• Gender isn’t something we are—it’s something we do in everyday interactions.

  • It’s a continuous performance shaped by cultural norms and reinforced through social behavior.

• People “do gender” through actions, such as clothing, speech, and mannerisms, to align with societal expectations.

• Gender meanings derive from culture (pink is for girls, blue is for boys).

• Gender is fundamentally a result of social interaction.

Components of Sexual Orientation

• Behavioral Component:

  • Context matters, such as prisoners who engage in same-sex behaviors, but will not once released from prison. This is because there was no access to women.

  • One can engage in same-sex behaviors and not identify as homosexual.

• Attraction Component:

  • Who a person is attracted to may differ from their sexual behavior.

• Identity Component:

  • How individuals label themselves.

• Statistics of men and women and components of sexual orientation:

  • Engaged in same-sex behavior:

    • 5.2% of men; 12.5% of women

  • Same-sex attraction:

    • 6.1% of men; 16.1% of women.

  • Identifies as homosexual:

    • 2.8% of men; 4.6% of women.

Why Exact Data on Sexual Orientation Is Difficult

• Vast spectrum.

Factors That Influence Sexual Orientation

• Gender nonconformity — behaviors or appearances that don’t align with societal expectations associated with the person’s sex or gender.

  • 50-75% of males who show gender nonconformity become gay.

  • There is no “tomboy” behavior linked to females.

• Social learning theory — psychological theory that emphasizes learning through observation, imitation, and modeling within a social context.

• Some believe orientation is in DNA.

• Researcher found differences in the hypothalamus between heterosexual and homosexual brains.

  • However, this research faced backlash from the gay community as it meant there’d be an opportunity to “fix” the “issue” that is homosexuality.

• Fraternal birth order — research study suggests the more boys a family has, the chances of a gay boy increases each time.

  • Increased chance by 1/3.

  • Female antibodies responsible.

  • May be to reduce competition for partners for reproduction.

Coming Out Process

• Can be a very difficult process for many people.

• One can practice with friends.

• Or a two-stage process with parents.

  • Come out one day, then talk about it the next.

Sambia

• Tribal group from Papua New Guinea

• Around 7-10, boys are separated from women and undergo ritualized homosexuality as part of their transition to manhood.

• Boys perform fellatio on older males to ingest their semen and to gain strength and masculinity.

• As they grow older, they become semen donors for younger boys beginning their sambia ritual.

• Once they have married, they cease homosexuality and focus on heterosexual behaviors.

• Mother’s breastmilk is considered toxic to young boys and is sometimes induced to vomit or induce nose bleeds to expel the milk.

Two-Spirt People

• Indigenous term to describe individuals who embody both masculine and feminine spirits or transcend traditional gender roles.

  • Many were androgynous and cross-dressed.

• Male and female individuals may take on roles of the other gender.

  • Male-bodied two-spirits might weave, cook, or become spiritual leaders.

  • Female-bodied two-spirits could hunt, lead wars, or refuse marriage.

• There are multiple Native American variations of the two-spirit people.

• Two-spirit people is not just about sexuality, but primarily gender identity and social function.

  • E.g., a two-spirit male living as a woman is married to a cisgender man, which is seen as heterosexual.

• Two-spirit people assumed various cultural roles such as healers, shamans, matchmakers, warriors, hunters, and keepers of oral traditions.

Hijras

• Hijras are a traditional third-gender or transgender community found primarily in South Asia, particularly in India.

  • Hijras may be born as male or intersex, but identify as female.

• Genetically male and get their genitals removed.

• Some work in prostitution.

Katoey

• A term used in Thailand most commonly used to describe transgender women and feminine gay men, but can include a variety of gender-diverse individuals.

• Gender diversity is influenced by Buddhism and karma from their previous life determines their gender identity in their current life.

Stranger Rape

• Rapes by strangers are more likely to be reported.

Acquaintance Rape

• Most women 18+ are raped by an acquaintance.

• Most rapes are committed by someone known to the victim.

  • 38% of rapists are a friend or acquaintance.

  • 28% are an intimate.

  • 7% are a relative.

• More blame to the victim when a rape is committed by an acquaintance.

• There’s generally less violence in acquaintance rapes vs. stranger rapes.

• many victims date the person after the event.

Date Rape

• Date rape drugs include alcohol and roofies.

  • Odorless, tasteless drug dropped into a victim’s drink.

  • Traces of the drug are gone within 24 hours.

• Victims become quickly intoxicated.

  • May pass out.

  • No memory of the events.

Characteristics of A Rapist

• Rape is about power and to some extent sex.

• Many serial rapists also engage in criminal activity.

• May have difficulty forming relationships and may lack internal controls.

• They tend to have adversarial relationships with women.

• They believe they did nothing wrong and caused no real harm to their victims.

• Rapists look for vulnerable women.

Definition of Sexual Coercion

• Sexual coercion — verbal, emotional force for unwanted sexual activity.

Factors of Sexual Coercion

• Both men and women can be victims of sexual coercion.

• Men tend to be more physical while women tend to be more verbal.

• College student study on sexual coercion:

  • 78% of women; 58% of men.

• Subject to persistent efforts even after refusing.

  • Level 1: sexual arousal

  • Level 2: emotional manipulation

  • Level 3: exploitation while intoxicated

  • Level 4: physical force

• Compliance — agreeing to sexual activity when you don’t really want to.

• Token resistance — women say “no” when they mean “yes” to avoid appearing too easy.

• Sexual scripts and double standards.

Lack of Communication & Sexual Coercion

• Some unwanted sexual experiences can be prevented with improved communication.

• Prevention of rape includes:

  • Talk openly about sex.

  • Keep talking as you get deeper into the relationship.

  • Be aware of alcohol or other drugs.

Statutory Rape

• Illegal for an adult to have sexual intercourse with anyone under the age of consent.

• Age of consent varies from state to state.

  • Ages 14 - 18.