LifespanDevelopment Chapter 4

Vaccination and Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Study Overview: A comprehensive investigation was conducted to explore the potential correlation between immunogens (substances that fight infections) received by children and the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

• Methodology: The researchers analyzed extensive medical records from various healthcare providers to ensure a large and diverse sample size.

• Key Finding: The study found no significant relationship between the quantity of immunogens delivered through vaccines during the first two years of life and the subsequent development of ASD, reinforcing the view of the medical community that vaccines do not cause autism.

Learning Objectives: Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood

• Erikson’s Third Stage: Initiative vs. Guilt

  • Key Concepts: This stage involves crucial changes in self-concept and self-esteem as children transition from toddlers to preschoolers. They begin to understand and interact with others, showcasing emotional regulation and the ability to delay gratification.

  • Morality: Children also start to develop their understanding of morality, discerning right from wrong through social interactions.

  • Gender Development: Familiarity with definitions such as transgender, gender dysphoria, and intersex becomes essential as children navigate their identities and societal expectations.

  • Parenting Styles: Differentiation of major parenting styles and their subsequent impacts on child development is explored, highlighting the importance of caregivers in fostering healthy growth.

  • Sibling Roles: The role of siblings in social and emotional development is also acknowledged.

  • Types of Play: Various types of play engaged by children are discussed, which play a critical role in social learning and development.

  • Media Influence: The impact of media on children's social development is examined, indicating both positive and negative influences.

Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt

• Developmental Drive: During this phase, children develop a strong desire to take initiative. This desire is influenced by the foundational stages of trust and autonomy established in earlier childhood (Erikson, 1982).

• Experimentation: Children are encouraged to experiment with initiative through activities such as building forts or setting up lemonade stands, which promotes independence and creativity.

• Caregiver Support: Positive reinforcement from caregivers is vital; praise for efforts encourages initiative, while criticism can lead to feelings of guilt or ineptness. Creative opportunities can be enhanced by displaying children’s artwork or facilitating imaginative play with toys like Legos.

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

• Formation of Self-Concept: Early childhood marks a period where children form their initial self-concept based on various internal and external qualities.

  • Definitions: Understanding the difference between self-concept (how we describe ourselves) and self-esteem (our evaluative judgment of self-worth) is crucial. Young children often use physical attributes, favorite activities, and possessions to define themselves (categorical self).

  • Development with Age: Awareness of internal qualities develops as children mature, and those with insecure attachments or maternal negative affect may exhibit lower self-esteem, impacting overall development.

Self-Control

• Components of Self-Control: Self-control is an essential skill comprising response initiation, inhibition, and the capacity for delayed gratification (Dougherty et al., 2005).

  • Marshmallow Test: The famous Marshmallow Test (Mischel et al., 1972) illustrates the importance of delayed gratification, which has been shown to predict better academic and health outcomes in the future.

  • Executive Function: Improved executive function is linked to enhanced self-control capabilities, resulting in decreased impulsivity (Traverso et al., 2015).

Understanding Gender Development

• Interest in Gender Roles: From ages 2 to preschool, children become increasingly interested in gender differences, with gender identity forming as a central aspect of their self-perception.

  • Gender Identity: This understanding of being male or female is influenced by biological, social, and representational factors.

  • Societal Gender Roles: Societal expectations guide behavior models for males and females, and these roles are ingrained through family dynamics, peer interactions, and media exposure.

  • Pre-Birth Gender Learning: Learning about gender roles starts even before birth, as societal perceptions are often shaped by color associations and behavioral expectations (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987).

Theories of Gender Development

• Social Learning Theory: This theory posits that behavior is learned through observation, modeling, and reinforcement (Bandura, 1997).

• Cognitive Social Learning Theory: It includes cognitive processes like attention and self-efficacy that play into how children acquire gender roles (Bussey & Bandura, 1999).

• Gender Schema Theory: This theory suggests that children actively acquire gender concepts by identifying with a gender and seeking relevant information on associated traits and behaviors (Bem, 1981).

• Developmental Intergroup Theory: This perspective emphasizes how cultural perceptions of gender lead to the formation of strong stereotypes and rigid expectations (Bigler & Liben, 2007).

Transgender Children

• Some children may reject traditional gender roles and gravitate towards traits associated with the opposite sex.

• Transgender Identity: These children might experience gender dysphoria or may not feel discomfort with their assigned identity.

• A longitudinal study (Olson & Gülgöz, 2018) revealed that socially transitioned transgender children tend to develop similarly to their cisgender peers, suggesting that acceptance and support play critical roles in their development.

Parenting Styles

• Baumrind’s Parenting Styles: This model categorizes parenting into four styles based on levels of control and warmth:

  • Authoritative: Characterized by high expectations, responsiveness, and support.

  • Authoritarian: Involves high demands with low responsiveness and strict controls.

  • Permissive: Marked by low demands yet high responsiveness, often lacking structure.

  • Uninvolved: Features low demands and low responsiveness.

• Outcome of Styles: The authoritative style is most conducive to fostering independence, self-reliance, and social competence in children.

• Variability in Parenting: Parenting styles can differ due to factors such as parental energy levels, life stressors, and previous modeling experiences.

Cultural Influences on Parenting

• Parenting styles often reflect broader cultural values:

  • Individualistic Cultures: Tend to favor independence and self-initiation.

  • Collectivistic Cultures: Emphasize obedience and compliance.

• Social Class Impact: Different social classes can influence parenting methods and expectations.

• Spanking as Discipline: Research has linked physical punishment to negative outcomes, advocating for alternative disciplinary methods (Smith, 2012; Gershoff, 2008).

Sibling Relationships

• Siblings play a pivotal role in the development of social skills through cooperative and pretend play activities.

• Positive sibling interactions are associated with enhanced peer relationships, and the strategies they use to resolve conflicts become more sophisticated over time, positively influencing emotional and cognitive development.

Play in Early Childhood

• Play is viewed as a vital mechanism for emotional release, intellectual growth, and social interaction.

• Parten's Types of Play: There are several types of play children engage in:

  • Non-Social Play: Includes unoccupied, solitary, and onlooker play.

  • Social Play: Encompasses parallel, associative, and cooperative play.

• As children mature, play interactions typically transition from non-social to more engaging, interactive forms.

Impact of Media on Young Children

• With children spending a significant amount of time in front of screens, there are potential adverse behavioral and developmental outcomes identified by research (Gentile & Walsh, 2002).

• The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends limiting screen time and promoting hands-on exploration, advocating for approaches that support developmental growth in early childhood.

Child Care

• As more mothers enter the workforce, the amount of time spent with children has been affected; however, the overall time in care has increased.

• Findings from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2006) suggest that the quality of caregiving—specifically education and the nature of interactions—has a significant impact on children’s developmental trajectories.

Child Abuse

• Child Abuse and Neglect is defined under federal law as encompassing various forms of maltreatment.

• According to statistics from 2017, victimization rates are alarmingly high, with neglect remaining the most frequently reported form of abuse.

• Factors such as age, ethnicity, and family dynamics show correlations with victimization rates, necessitating targeted interventions.

Stress on Young Children

• Chronic stress resulting from abuse or toxic environments can severely impede development, leading to long-term health complications (Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008).

• Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): These experiences are directly linked to increased risks for negative health outcomes, primarily based on early exposures to trauma.

Family Separation at the Border

• Separation from parents during immigration processes carries significant mental health risks for children, adversely affecting emotional development and leading to potential long-term repercussions (American Psychological Association, 2019).