Psychology Final

  • Scientific Psychology, Skepticism, and Pseudoscience

    • Why is psychology considered a science?

      • It is systematic and empirical, and because it uses scientific theory, including hypothesis, theories predictions, and safeguards against bias

    • understand the relationship between skepticism and science.

      • Skepticism is approaching a scientific topic with an open mind and an evidence based approach,  always being willing to change ones mind.

    • How does science differ from pseudoscience?

      • A set of claims that seems scientific but it isn't because it lacks safeguards against biases.

        • Can be spotted when there are exaggerated claims, anecdotal reliance, and lack of review/correction

    • Connect these concepts to the framework for scientific thinking and research

    methods (i.e., how do research methods differ from casual observation and

    pseudoscience?).

    • Scientific Research methods use the scientific method in order to research properly, ethically, and without bias. Pseudoscience uses language to persuade the public that they have done the same, when they have not.

    Framework for Scientific Thinking

    • Thinking Principals

      1. Ruling our rival Hypothesis: Always being willing to consider alternative explanations

      2. Correlation does not equal causation:

      3. Falsifiability: Can the claim be disproven or proven: If I say there is an invisible energy field surrounding people that influence their mood, there is no way to properly disprove me. This isn't great

      4. Replicability: All results must be proved by being replicated!

      5. Claim strength must = Evidence strength

      6. Occam's razor: When there a ton of explanations for something, the simplest if often the best!

     

    • Goals of science: scientists want to describe, explain, predict, and control events

      • Describe: provides an account of the interesting phenomena and the characteristics that make it interesting.

      • Explain: Why is the phenomena happening? Takes the forms of Hypothesis and Theories

      • Predict: Use knowledge about events or variables to predict an outcome of interest

      • Control: To exert influence over research settings procedures, and over the application of scientific knowledge

     

    Theoretical Frameworks

    • Structuralism

      • Aimed to identify the basic elements of psychological experience

        • Elements: sensations, images, and feelings

        • Founded by Edward Titchener

      • Using introspection as their primary method (trained observers carefully reflect and report on their mental experience)

      • Problems with structuralism

        • Disagreement among introspections

        • Imageless thought

      • Good things about structuralism

        • Used systematic observations

    • Functionalism

      • Focused on the functions and adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics, such as thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

        • Often asked why instead of what

        • Founded by William James

      • Influenced by Darwin/Evolutionary by natural selection

        • Psychological and behavioural characteristics are adaptive

      • Stream of thought

        • The contents of the mind are better liked to a steam rather than a fixed element

    • Behaviourism

      • The scientific study on observable behaviour

        • Focused on the general laws of learning

        • Obsessed with objective data

        • Founded by John Watson: claimed that psych could be as scientific and mathematic as physics, chemistry, etc.

        • Key Behaviourists: B.F. Skinner

      • Anti-mentalistic

        • You don't need to know what it thinks, you need to know the environment in which it makes decisions and the natural factors that makes it exist in that environment.

        • Thinking is a behaviour in and of itself that is caused by environment. Thinking does not cause the behaviour

      • Negatives

        • Went too far by suggesting that everything is learned

      • Positives

        • Clarified learning principles: systems of reward matter greatly

        • Brought a focus onto observable and verifiable subject matter (Psych has come back from this somewhat as it is more understood that the brain and perception do still matter.

    • Cognitivism/Cognitive Psychology

      • Understanding thinking is central to understanding behaviour

        • Response to behaviourist ideas.

      • Interpretation Matters

      • Focus is on the black box- thinking/cognition

      • Cognition

        • Perception

        • Attention

        • Memory

        • Language

        • Reasoning

      • Cognitive psychology forged ties with neuroscience

        • Examines relation between brain functioning and thinking

    • Psychoanalysis

      • Focuses on internal psychological processes of which we are unaware

        • Unconscious memories and drives cause behaviours

        • Sigmund Freud: Sexual and aggression drive what we do, and our mind has depth of unconsciousness that we cannot control.

      • He proposed our mind creates symbols that when understood, we can understand why we do what we do and think what we think.

        • Positives: focus on unconscious drives and behavior

        • Negatives: unconscious processes are not the same as scientifically demonstrated non-conscious determinants of behaviour. Additionally, the claims that they made were non scientific and non testable.

      • The question that was asked of this is "how does he know this" which is a question you should always ask

    Research designs: be able to identify the different designs discussed in Topic 2 by their characteristics.

    • What is the purpose of good research design?

      • Avoid biases when evaluating information

      • Attempt to see the world as it really is (including the psychological world)

    • Observational research

      • Different types of non-experimental studies on which behaviour is systematically watched or recorded

        • Naturalistic observation: Watching behaviour in a real world settings without trying to manipulate the situation

          • Behaviour is often recorded with video, audio, and notes

          • Ex. Observing animal behaviour

          • Ethics: usually goes through an ethics board of some kind. When tabulating only it is pretty simple.

          • Advantages

            • Ecological validity: the extent to which the research findings apply in the real world

              • The research setting is the real world

            • External validity: the extent to which findings apply to other contexts besides the research setting

          • Disadvantages

            • Lack internal validity: the ability to draw cause and effect inferences (we could hypothesises the causes but cannot draw definitive conclusions

            • Reactivity: When the process of observing behaviour causes that behaviour to change (A teacher watching a bully so he stops bullying)

        • Participant observation: the observer becomes part of the group or social setting being studied (E.g. ethnography (going into a remote village and observing))

        • Structured observation: researchers configure the setting in which behaviour will be observed

     

    • Case studies

      • An in depth analysis of an individual, social unit, event, or some other phenomenon, often over an extended period of time

        • A comprehensive examination of a single case.

      • Many techniques are used to collect data

        • The goal is to explore the richness and depth of a particular case

        • Case studies are narratives.

      • Examples:

        • HM Amnesia

        • Night nurses (we can go into complex case studies on night nurses all around the world and see the difference between one hospital to another

        • Bizarre Phenomena: Zoophilic Exhibitionism (getting aroused by animals)

      • Advantages

        • There are existence proofs: we can prove that something exists.

        • There are in depth explorations into everything that is done. All angles

        • Flexibility in data collection techniques

        • Provide supporting or disconfirming evidence to different hypothesis

        • Provide leads for researchers to further investigate things with other methods.

      • Disadvantages

        • Cannot systematically test hypotheses (observer Bias)

        • We cannot draw causal inferences

        • Problems with generalizability

    • Surveys and Survey Research

      • Uses questionnaires to gather information about people

        • Self report measures

        • Examine traits, beliefs, opinions, and feelings

      • They can be descriptive, and they could be used to test hypotheses, however sometimes it is hard to fully rely on these

      • Population and samples

        • Population: Refers to all cases or observations of interest to us

        • Sample: a subset of cases or observations from the population

          • Representative sample: Reflects the important characteristics of the population.

        • Random Selection: procedure that ensures that every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

      • Evaluating our Measures and reliability

        • The consistency of measurement tool should be reliable

        • Consistency when consistency is expected is needed

        • Measures should be reliable, even if they are inaccurate or invalid

        • Types of reliably

          • Test-retest: administer the same measure to the same participants on two or more occasions, under the equivalent conditions

          • Interrater Reliability: The extent to which independent rater or observers agree in their assessments.

        • Validity's There is no internal validity (cannot draw cause and effect), but there is external validity

          • The extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure

          • E.g. does our measure of shyness actually measure shyness or does it measure a different psychological construct?

          • Reliability and validity are different concepts

            • Reliability is necessary for validity

        • Survey Research: wording the question

          • The wording of questions is critical when conducting or interpreting survey research

          • Common issues

            1. Leading Questions: Items are presented in an unbalanced way that can overtly or subtly suggest that one viewpoint or response is preferable to another. (using specific language such as smashed into vs bumped into)

            2. Loaded Questions: items that contain emotionally charged words that suggest one viewpoint or response as better than another. (do you support or oppose this political candidate who did this bad thing)

            3. Double Barreled Questions: items that ask about two different things but force those two options into one answer or judgement. (rate your coworkers and your pay on a scale from 1-10)

            4. Double negatives: items whose phrasing contains two negative words (not bad vs good) when a lot of negative words are present it is confusing

        • Advantages of self-report measures

          • Convenient

          • Works well

          • Appropriate: many questions need to be asked directly.

        • Disadvantages

          • Lack of personal insight (people don’t know themselves)

          • Self report measures assume honest, but there is social desirability bias (a tendency to perform in a socially appropriate way rather than how someone truly feels.

     

    • Correlational Designs

      • A research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

        • Statistical association between examples

        • Score are associated in a non random fashion.

        • Ex.

          • Positive psychological wellbeing is associated with better cardiovascular health.

          • Per Capita cheese consumption is associated with deaths by becoming tangled in the bed sheets (correlation, not causation)

      • Terms: associated, linked, related, all mean correlation.

        • We measure variables, but never manipulate them

      • Positive and negative

        • Positive correlation: X increases and Y increases, X decreases and Y decreases.

        • Negative (inverse) Correlation: X increase, Y decrease. Y increase to X decrease.

      • Designs

        • Pearson's R

          • Stat that measures the direction and strength of the linear relationship between two variables

          • Values range from -1 to +1.

            • + = positive

            • -= negative

            • -.51 is a stronger relationship than +.29

        • Scatterplot: a graph that portrays the intersection of data on two variables for a single individual.

        • Counter examples don’t refute the existence of correlation.

      • We often struggle to accurately estimate relationships without statistics. We perceive patterns that don't exist, and miss patters that do exist.

      • Illusory Correlation: The perception of statistical association between two variable when none exist. (full moon and strange occurrences)

        • Superstition may stem from this

      • We perceive these because we notice their elements, and we fail to remember non-elements. 

        • Confirmation bias. 

      • Correlation vs Causation

        • Correlation does not equal causation

          • We know A and B are related

            • A could cause B

            • Or B could cause A

            • OR OR third Variable C could tap in and cause both A and B, or just one of them!

        • Correlation allow us to make predictions

          • Prediction isn't perfect but possible.

          • Sometimes we don’t need to know the cause we just need to know associations.

          • E.g. Predict Univeristy success based on High school grades

    • Experiments

      • Allows us to make causal inferences (when done correctly

        • This is because experiments manipulate variables, whereas designs only measure variables

        • Low external validity overall.

      • What Makes a study an experiment?

        • The researcher manipulates one or more variable,

        • attempts to control extraneous factors,

        • measure how the manipulated variable affect participates responses

        • Participants are randomly assigned to groups

        • Cause and effect inferences require that groups be equal

          • Of they are not, we could draw alternative explanations.

          • We need random assignment to create equal groups

      • Aspects of designs

        • Independent Variable: the variable manipulated by the researcher.

          • The presumed cause in the cause and effect relationship

        • Dependent Variable: the response that is measured, to determine whether the independent variable has produced an effect

          • The presumed effect in the cause and effect relationship

        • Random Assignment: the participants in the experiment are randomly sorted into groups

          • Different than random selection

        • Experimental group: participants that receives the manipulation

        • Control Group: The group of participants that does not receive the manipulation

        • Confounding variable: any variable that differs between the different groups (conditions) of the experiment besides the manipulated Ind. Variable.

      • Design Examples

        • Between participant designs

          • Between subjects

          • Researchers assign people to different groups (or condition)

          • Each participant takes part in one condition of the experiment,

        • Within-participant design:

          • Each participant acts as their own control

          • Participate engages in every condition experiment

          • Randomly assigned order of conditions

      • Issues with Experimentation

        • Placebo effect: Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

          • Blinded experiments: participants are unaware if they are in the experimental group or the control group.

        • Nocebo effect: harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm

        • Experimenter Expectancy Effects

          • Researchers hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study.

          • Double Blind Experiments: When Neither the researchers nor the participants are aware of who is in the experimental or control group. Sometimes researchers could bias the data based on their collection techniques when the double blind is not in effect.

        • Demand Characteristics

          • Cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researchers hypotheses or predictions.

          • Can greatly affect responses.

          • Counteract with cover stories or distractor tasks

    Ethics in Research

    • Why are research ethics important?

      • psychology because humans (and animals) are sentient beings.

      • Progress in psychology depends on willing participants

      • Ethics can impact methodology.

    • How do ethical considerations affect the methods psychologists use?

      • Core principals

        • Respect for persons: respect for autonomy and protect those with developing, impaired, or diminished autonomy.

        • Concern for welfare:  Quality of life, physical and mental health. Social and psychological health. Even spiritual health. Harming in general cannot really happen.

        • Justice: fair and equitable treatment for everyone regardless of any kind of bias, benefit, or conceptions.

      • Informed consent

        • Informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate

        • People have the right to make a voluntary and informed decision about whether to participate in a study.

        • People always have the right to leave a survey and attempting to get them not to leave could be considered cohesion.

        • Deception:

          • Researchers intentionally withhold information (passive D) or mislead (active D) participants about the nature of the study

          • Only permitted if:

            • Study can exist without deception

            • Does not harm

            • Does not involve medical or therapeutic intervention

            • Study is likely to yield significant positive benefits

      • Debriefing

        • A conversation or communication with the participant that conveys additional info about the study and its purpose.

        • Chance to ask questions

        • Minimize negative effects or feelings

     

    What is Intelligence?

    • Discuss the various descriptions of the concept of intelligence.

    Intelligence is an abstract/hypothetical contstruct

    • How the heck would we actually define and measure it? We see behavioural demonstration, but not definition

     

    Edward Boring: "intelligence is what the tests tests"(1923)

     

    Intelligence as "sensory capacity"

    • Proposed by Sir Francis Galton

      • Intelligence was considered the byproduct of how good your sensory capabilities are

    • Galton Measured visual acuity, hearing, response time, smell, grip strength, and other basic sensory abilities and motor functions

      • Tried to link sensory abilities with eminence

    • James McKeen Cattel used Galtonian measures in the US on university students

      • Research showed there was no connection between sensory discrimination and academic grades

      • Different sensory capacities are only modestly correlated.

     

    Intelligence is abstract thinking

    • Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed one of the first proper intelligence tests. (1905)

      • Intelligence test: diagnostic tool to measure overall thinking.

    • They used test items from different domains to assess children.

      • 30 brief cognitive tests

      • Language, memory, perception, attention, reasoning, judgements, digit memory

        • Tests were all correlated with each other, which helps understand what intelligence looks like.

      • Abstract thinking: capacity to understand hypothetical thoughts or concepts. Contributes greatly to intelligence.

      • In 1908, theses tests were groups accoding to age level.

      • Abstract thinking is deeply tied to intelligence.

     

    Intelligence as General vs Specific abilities

    • Tests of different IQ domains are modestly correlated with each other.

    • All different tests did not inversely correlate with one another

    • Charles spearman hypothesized the existence of a single underlying trait.

      • G (general intelligence): a hypothetical factor that accounts for overall difference in intellect among people.

      • Used a new statistical technique called factor analysis to examine IQ Data.

      • G may reflect mental energy or mental power: efficiency and accuracy.

    • Spearman proposed the existence of S (specific abilities): a particular ability in a narrow domain

      • Intelligence is more than just a general ability

     

    Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

    • Fluid Intelligence: the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems

      • E.g. getting out of an escape room based on clues on the first attempt. Can be associated with physiological function and brain function. Proposed to be born with this.

    • Crystalized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge of the world over time.

      • E.g. Memorizing definitions for a university exam.

    • Distinct, but interrelated forms of intelligence

      • New experiences "flow" into memory and "crystalize"

      • Those with higher fluid can often crystalize more information than those with low fluid.

     

    Multiple Intelligences

    • Linguistic: speak and write well

    • Logico-mathematical: uses logic and math to solve problems

    • Spatial: think and reason with objects in three dimensional space

    • Musical: understands and enjoys music

    • Bodily-kinesthetic: sports or dance

    • Interpersonal: understands others

    • Intrapersonal: understands self

    • Naturalistic: understands plants, animals, and other natural life.

    • Existential: understands big questions such as meaning of life and conciousness.

    • Gardner's criteria to be a separate form of intelligence

      • Dissociation evidence (brain damage)

        • We can dissociate different forms at different times. We can use some forms while not using others, some can be damaged while others remain intact

      • Exceptionalities (prodigies)

        • There should be those that have great example of one or two forms of intelligence, but a lack of other forms of intelligence. (Autistic)

      • Definable end state performance/profession

        • There should be something you can do with your intelligence

      • Support from psychometric findings.

      • Cant be too correlated to another intelligence.

    • Mixed evidence

      • Some of the intelligences seem to be correlated (suggest a general factor of intelligence)

      • Why not other intelligences?

      • Too little evidence for the theory

    • Gardner's theory has been widely applied in education: a questionable approach to teaching.

     

     

    • Be able to compare different ideas about the nature of intelligence and think critically about the strengths and limitations of each.

    Other topics to know

    • Basics of psychology and the complexity of psychological inquiry

      • The scientific study of the mind, brain, and behaviour

        • Scientific investigations are systematic and empirical

          • Systematic

          • Empirical: able to come through the senses as facts of reality

      • There are several levels of analysis

        1. Biological level: genes, neuro factors, etc.

        2. Psychological: Thoughts, feelings, emotions. Mental ideas.

        3. Socio-cultural: The social context in which open is placed in. Relating to others, long term relationships, support levels, etc.

      • Behavior is difficult to predict, as it is multiply determined. (There are many factors that add up to cause this)

      • We always want to avoid single variable explanations (This is the cause of this)

      • Psychological variables are often interrelated (variables are often linked together through different processes)

      • Individual differences

        • Everyone has different thinking, emotions, personalities, beliefs, behaviours, etc.

        • Everyone will respond differently to different stimuli

      • Mutual Influence

        • Reciprocal determinism: people mutually influence each other's behaviour. (I take a shot, so does bobby. So when bobby takes a shot, so do I)

      • Cultural differences

     

    • Evaluating our Measures and reliability

      • The consistency of measurement tool should be reliable

      • Consistency when consistency is expected is needed

      • Measures should be reliable, even if they are inaccurate or invalid

      • Types of reliably

        • Test-retest: administer the same measure to the same participants on two or more occasions, under the equivalent conditions

        • Interrater Reliability: The extent to which independent rater or observers agree in their assessments.

      • Validity: The extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure

      •  Internal validity: cannot draw cause and effect,

      • External validity: extent to which we can generalize findings to real world settings

        • E.g. does our measure of shyness actually measure shyness or does it measure a different psychological construct?

        • Reliability and validity are different concepts

          • Reliability is necessary for validity

     

    • Theoretical Frameworks/History of Psychology

      • 1879: Wilhelm Wundt develops first psych lab in Leipzig Germany

      • Psychology moves away from spiritualism (moving away from the brain and the spirit being the same. Psychology moved away from being philosophy)

    • Scientific Theories

      • Theories

        • A theory explains one specific event

        • A theory is an educated guess (very educated)

          • Theories account for findings: provide an explanatory framework

          • Theories cannot be proven correct- however they can be very highly supported by evidence

    • Naïve Realism

      • The belief that we see the world precisely as it is

    • Confirmation bias

      • Confirmation Bias: the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them

      • Belief perseverance: the tendency to stick to our initial beliefs, even when evidence contradicts them. (reluctance to give up our safety beliefs)

    • System 1 and System 2 Thinking

      • Intuitive thinking (system 1)

        • Quick and reflexive mental shortcuts (hunches) (Two lines at the grocery store, one with old people one with young. Most of the time, I would choose the young.

        • Little mental effort required (We are cognitive Misers: we don’t wanna use our mental energy when we don't have to)

        • Bread and ___, 2+2=_____

      • Analytical thinking (system 2)

        • Slow and reflective; deliberate

        • Requires mental effort that can be drained.

        • Listening to lectures, weighing the pros and cons of buying a new car, etc.

      • Intuitive thinking is adaptive and important but over reliance on it leads to errors. This is why we rely on our natural tendencies.

        • Research methods can help avoid the pitfalls of intuitive thinking.

    • Independent and Dependent Variables

      • Independent Variable: the variable manipulated by the researcher.

        • The presumed cause in the cause and effect relationship

      • Dependent Variable: the response that is measured, to determine whether the independent variable has produced an effect

        • The presumed effect in the cause and effect relationship

    • Operational Definitions

      • Conceptual Definitions

        • How do we specify our phenomenon or construct of interest. (E.g. happiness is an abstract idea, therefore defining everything as happiness that you could define happiness' as is a fallacy)

      • Operational Definition

        • A working definition of what a researcher is measuring

        • Defining a variable in terms of the procedures used to measure or manipulate it.

          • Making sure that something is measured by the evidence (being exposed to nature increases happiness (well what is happiness))

    • Key concepts in correlation

      • A research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

        • Statistical association between examples

      • Positive and negative

        • Positive correlation: X increases and Y increases, X decreases and Y decreases.

        • Negative (inverse) Correlation: X increase, Y decrease. Y increase to X decrease.

      • Correlation vs Causation

        • Correlation does not equal causation

          • We know A and B are related

            • A could cause B

            • Or B could cause A

            • OR OR third Variable C could tap in and cause both A and B, or just one of them!

    • Issues in experimentation

      • Placebo effect: Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

        • Blinded experiments: participants are unaware if they are in the experimental group or the control group.

      • Nocebo effect: harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm

      • Experimenter Expectancy Effects

        • Researchers hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study.

        • Double Blind Experiments: When Neither the researchers nor the participants are aware of who is in the experimental or control group. Sometimes researchers could bias the data based on their collection techniques when the double blind is not in effect.

      • Demand Characteristics

        • Cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researchers hypotheses or predictions.

        • Can greatly affect responses.

        • Counteract with cover stories or distractor tasks

    • Basic statistics

      • Numerical characterizations that describe data.

      • Central Tendency

        • Measure of typical or central scores

      • Mean: The average of the dataset

        • Advantage: includes all numerical information in dataset

        • Disadvantage: heavily influenced by outliers (add a 63 year old to a normal university class of 20 year olds.

      • Median: Middle score of a data set

        • Disadvantages: doesn’t include all numerical data

        • Advantage: less heavily influenced by outliers

      • Mode: The more frequently occurring score in a dataset

      • Variability

        • Measures of how scores vary

        • How loose or tightly bunched scores are

      • Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores

        • E.g., 18, 20, 22, 22, 23; Mean: 21, Range: 5 years

        • E.g.,  5, 9, 18, 23, 50; Mean: 21, Range: 45 years

        • E.g., 2, 3, 4, 6, 81, 84; Mean: 30, Range: 82 years

        • E.g.,  2, 19, 22, 25, 28, 84: Mean: 30, Range: 82 years

      • Standard deviation

        • Measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean.

     

    Sternberg’s Triarchic Model of Intelligence

            •        Overview:

            •        Intelligence is composed of three types:

            1.        Analytical Intelligence: Problem-solving, logical reasoning, critical thinking.

            •        Example: Solving a math problem.

            2.        Creative Intelligence: Dealing with novel situations, thinking “outside the box.”

            •        Example: Writing a unique story or inventing a new product.

            3.        Practical Intelligence: Adapting to everyday challenges, “street smarts.”

            •        Example: Successfully managing a team at work.

            •        Limitations: Critics argue it lacks empirical evidence, and components overlap with broader definitions of intelligence.

     

     

    Biological Bases of Intelligence

            •        Key Factors:

            •        Brain Size and Structure: Larger brain volumes, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, correlate with higher intelligence.

            •        Measured through MRI scans.

            •        Cortical Density and Localization: High neuron density and specific brain areas (e.g., frontal lobes) linked to cognitive tasks.

            •        Example: EEG patterns during problem-solving.

            •        Processing Efficiency: Faster neural processing speeds are linked to higher IQ.

            •        Measured with response time tasks.

            •        Working Memory Capacity: Strong correlation with IQ and problem-solving ability.

            •        Assessed using digit span tasks or memory recall tests.

     

     

    Reliability and Validity of IQ Scores

            •        Reliability:

            •        Definition: Consistency of a test over time.

            •        Types:

            •        Test-Retest: Same results on repeated attempts.

            •        Inter-Rater: Agreement between different evaluators.

            •        Example: A student scoring similarly on the same IQ test six months apart.

            •        Validity:

            •        Definition: Extent to which a test measures what it claims.

            •        Types:

            •        Content Validity: Covers all aspects of intelligence.

            •        Predictive Validity: Correlates with future outcomes (e.g., academic success).

            •        Example: High IQ scores predicting strong academic performance.

     

     

    Cognitive Development

            •        Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory:

            •        Stages:

            1.        Sensorimotor (0-2): Object permanence.

            2.        Preoperational (2-7): Egocentrism, symbolic thought.

            3.        Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical thinking, conservation tasks.

            4.        Formal Operational (12+): Abstract reasoning.

            •        Limitations: Underestimated children’s abilities; ignored sociocultural factors.

            •        General Cognitive Landmarks:

            •        Infancy: Object tracking and recognition.

            •        Childhood: Increased attention span and memory.

            •        Adolescence: Abstract and moral reasoning.

            •        Adulthood: Peak in 20s, gradual decline in late adulthood.

     

     

    Strange Situation and Attachment

            •        Purpose: Assess attachment quality between infants and caregivers.

            •        Attachment Types:

            1.        Secure: Comfortable with exploration and caregiver presence.

            2.        Avoidant: Avoids caregiver, indifferent to their return.

            3.        Resistant: Clingy, but resistant to comfort upon return.

            4.        Disorganized: Inconsistent, erratic behaviors.

            •        Outcomes: Secure attachment predicts better social and emotional development.

     

     

    Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

            •        Overview: Lifespan development involves resolving psychosocial crises.

            •        Eight Stages:

            1.        Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)

            2.        Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Early Childhood)

            3.        Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)

            4.        Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age)

            5.        Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

            6.        Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)

            7.        Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)

            8.        Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)

     

     

    Stress and Coping

            •        Stress: Physical and emotional strain from challenges.

            •        Three Perspectives:

            1.        Stressors as Stimuli.

            2.        Stress as a Response.

            3.        Stress as a Transaction (primary and secondary appraisals).

            •        Coping Factors: Social support, coping strategies (e.g., problem-focused), sense of control, personality traits.

     

     

    Biology of Stress

            •        General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):

            1.        Alarm: Fight-or-flight response.

            2.        Resistance: Sustained coping.

            3.        Exhaustion: Resource depletion.

            •        Physiological Mechanisms:

            •        Sympathetic Nervous System: Immediate stress response.

            •        HPA Axis: Releases cortisol for prolonged stress management.

     

     

    Promoting Good Health

            •        Health Psychology Goals: Improve physical and mental health outcomes.

            •        Four Focal Points:

            •        Smoking cessation.

            •        Alcohol reduction.

            •        Healthy diet and weight.

            •        Regular exercise.

            •        Behavior Change: Gradual goals and addressing barriers (e.g., habit strength).

     

     

    Why Do We Need to Test Intelligence?

            •        Purpose: To assess cognitive abilities, predict academic/work success, and diagnose intellectual disabilities or giftedness.

            •        Applications: Educational placement, career guidance, and research.

     

     

    Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and Deviation IQ

            •        IQ Formula: Originally mental age ÷ chronological age × 100.

            •        Deviation IQ: Modern IQ scores are standardized, with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.

     

     

    Misuses of IQ Testing (Eugenics)

            •        Eugenics Movement: Misused IQ tests to promote discriminatory policies (e.g., forced sterilization, immigration restrictions).

            •        Ethical Issues: Highlighted need for fair and unbiased testing practices.

     

     

    Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

            •        Overview: Most widely used IQ test for adults.

            •        Structure: Measures verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

     

     

    Intelligence on the Bell Curve

            •        Normal Distribution: Most scores cluster around the mean (100), with fewer scores at the extremes.

            •        Implications: Highlights average intelligence and variations, but overemphasis can lead to stereotypes.

     

     

    Intellectual Disability and High Intelligence

            •        Intellectual Disability: IQ < 70; challenges in adaptive functioning.

            •        High Intelligence: IQ > 130; associated with creativity and problem-solving skills.

     

     

    Genetic Influences and Twin Studies

            •        Findings: Identical twins show higher IQ correlation than fraternal twins, even when raised apart.

            •        Conclusion: Strong genetic component, but environment also matters.

     

     

    Environmental Influences on IQ

            •        Examples: Socioeconomic status, education, nutrition, and access to enrichment activities.

            •        Critical Periods: Early childhood experiences have lasting effects on IQ development.

     

     

    The Flynn Effect

            •        Definition: Gradual increase in IQ scores over generations.

            •        Causes: Improved education, nutrition, and technology access.

     

     

    Group Differences in IQ and Stereotype Threat

            •        Group Differences: Often attributed to environmental and cultural factors, not genetics.

            •        Stereotype Threat: Anxiety about confirming stereotypes can impair performance.

     

     

    Key Definitions in Developmental Psychology

            •        Human Development: Study of changes across the lifespan.

            •        Developmental Psychology: Examines physical, cognitive, and social growth.

            •        Lifespan Perspective: Emphasizes lifelong development, not just childhood.

            •        Post-Hoc Fallacy: Assuming earlier events directly cause later outcomes.

            •        Bidirectional Influences: Interaction between genetics and environment.

     

     

    Critical Periods

            •        Definition: Timeframes when specific skills (e.g., language) must develop for normal function.

            •        Example: Early sensory stimulation critical for vision.

     

     

    Myths About Early Experience

            •        Myth: Early deprivation always leads to long-term deficits.

            •        Reality: Resilience and later experiences often mitigate effects.

     

     

    Nature-Nurture Debate

            •        Nature: Genetic predispositions.

            •        Nurture: Environmental influences.

            •        Modern View: Interaction between both shapes development.

     

     

    Cohorts and Age-Related Changes

            •        Cohorts: Groups born at the same time, sharing similar life experiences.

            •        Study Methods: Longitudinal (same group over time) vs. Cross-Sectional (different ages at one time).

     

     

    The Developing Body

            •        Infancy: Reflexes, rapid growth.

            •        Childhood: Fine/gross motor skills develop.

            •        Adolescence: Puberty, growth spurts.

            •        Adulthood: Gradual physical decline.

     

     

    Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

            •        Core Idea: Social interactions and culture influence cognitive development.

            •        Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Skills a child can achieve with guidance.

     

     

    Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development

            •        Milestones: Object permanence, symbolic thought, logical reasoning, abstract thinking.

            •        Example: Conservation tasks in Piaget’s concrete operational stage.

     

     

    Attachment and Parenting Styles

            •        Attachment Types:

            1.        Secure: Parent is safety, but child still explores

            2.        Avoidant: The child avoids the parent and shows no attachment to them

            3.        Resistant/Ambivalent: Child doesn’t like when separated, but isn't comforted .   by the parent

            4.        Disorganized: Confused in parents presence and absence.

     

    • Parenting Styles:

      • Authoritarian: high demands and control, but little warmth or communication

      • Permissive: high warmth, low control, demands, and communication

      • Uninvolved: low demands, warmth, control, and communication

      • Authoritative: high demands, control, warmth, and communication

     

     

     

     

    Relationships Across the Lifespan

            •        Infancy: Parental attachment crucial.

            •        Adulthood: Romantic relationships and friendships provide social support.

            •        Later Life: Focus on family and legacy.

     

     

    Good and Bad Stress

            •        Good Stress (Eustress): Motivates and enhances performance.

            •        Bad Stress (Distress): Chronic or overwhelming, leading to health problems.

     

     

    Measuring Stress

            •        Methods: Self-report surveys, physiological measures (e.g., cortisol levels, heart rate).

     

     

    Variation in Stress Responses

            •        Factors: Personality, coping strategies, social support, and sense of control.

     

     

    Health Psychology and Biopsychosocial Model

            •        Biopsychosocial Model: Health influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.

            •        Focus: Behavior change to promote health (e.g., exercise, smoking cessation).

     

     

    Immune System and Stress

            •        Basics: Chronic stress weakens the immune system.

            •        Example: Higher susceptibility to colds and cardiovascular diseases.

     

    Social Psychology

            •        Definition: The study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others.

            •        Key Points:

            •        Social Influence: Shapes thoughts, feelings, and actions.

            •        Bias: We see others as influenced by social factors but often think we are immune.

            •        Humans: Inherently social beings.

     

    Social Influence

            •        Why We Conform:

            •        Adaptive behavior.

            •        Social cues guide actions in uncertainty.

            •        Can be positive or negative (e.g., group allegiance, persuasive leaders).

            •        Key Mechanisms:

            •        Social Comparison: Evaluating oneself relative to others.

            •        Social Contagion: Adopting others’ behaviors, especially in ambiguous situations.

     

    Attributions

            •        Definition: Assigning causes to behavior.

            •        Types:

            •        Internal: Behavior due to personality or disposition.

            •        External: Behavior due to situational factors.

            •        Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE):

            •        Overestimating dispositional causes, underestimating situational factors.

            •        Reversed for our own failures (e.g., “I failed because I was busy; they failed because they’re lazy”).

            •        Influenced by salience and culture

     

    Conformity

            •        Definition: Changing behavior due to real or imagined group pressure.

            •        Examples: Cults, dictatorships, everyday habits.

            •        Asch Studies (1955):

            •        Procedure: Participants identified line lengths while confederates gave incorrect answers.

            •        Results:

            •        ~75% conformed on at least one trial.

            •        Factors: group size, unanimity, differing opinions.

    .

    Deindividuation

            •        Definition: Atypical behavior due to reduced personal identity in groups.

            •        Examples: Sports riots, military abuse.

            •        Factors:

            1.        Anonymity: Harder to attribute actions to individuals.

            2.        Reduced Self-Awareness: Focus on group norms.

            3.        Normative Social Influence: Adhering to group expectations.

     

    Social Roles

            •        Definition: Shared expectations about behavior in specific positions (e.g., teacher, boss, parent).

            •        Stanford Prison Study: Participants quickly adopted roles (guards vs. prisoners); methodological issues raised.

     

    Groupthink

            •        Definition: Emphasis on unanimity over critical thinking.

            •        Consequences: Poor decision-making due to ignoring unique information or dissenting views.

            •        Examples: Bay of Pigs, Vietnam War, jury deliberations.

            •        Antecedents: Cohesiveness, isolation, directive leadership.

     

    Cults

            •        Definition: Groups with intense, unquestioning devotion to a cause.

            •        Mechanisms of Influence:

            •        Charismatic leaders.

            •        Isolation from the outside world.

            •        Indoctrination and discouraging dissent.

            •        Misconceptions:

            •        Members are not necessarily mentally ill.

            •        “Brainwashing” is not the sole explanation.

            •        Inoculation Effect: Debunking beliefs by exposing weak arguments first.

     

    Obedience

            •        Definition: Following instructions from authority figures.

            •        Importance: Necessary for societal function but can lead to harm when authority is not critically evaluated.

            •        Examples: Nazi Holocaust (group conformity and obedience).

            •        Key Concept: The Banality of Evil (Arendt).

     

     

    Prosocial Behavior

            •        Definition: Any act performed to benefit another person or group.

            •        Examples:

            •        Pro-environmental behavior: recycling, using public transport.

            •        Sharing: food, money, or resources.

            •        Cooperating: working together on a project.

            •        Helping: volunteerism, emergency intervention.

            •        Kitty Genovese Case:

            •        Misreported by the NY Times as “urban apathy.”

            •        Latané & Darley studied situational influences on helping behavior.

     

     

    Bystander Effect

            •        Definition: The more bystanders present during an emergency, the less likely any one will help.

            •        Key Reasons:

            •        Pluralistic Ignorance: Assuming others don’t see the situation as an emergency.

            •        Diffusion of Responsibility: Feeling less personal responsibility when others are present.

            •        Methodology in Research:

            •        Staged emergencies (e.g., seizure, smoke in a lab).

            •        Measured helping behavior based on group size and cues.

            •        Philpot et al. (2020):

            •        Reviewed CCTV footage.

            •        Found that intervention was common and increased with group size.

     

     

    Helping and Altruism

            •        Definition:

            •        Altruism: Helping others selflessly, even at a personal cost.

            •        Factors Influencing Helping Behavior:

            •        Egotistic Reasons: Personal benefits, like feeling good.

            •        Empathy: Feeling others’ distress.

            •        Situational Factors: Proximity, victim characteristics, norms, time pressure.

            •        Individual Differences: Personality, training, attractiveness of the victim.

     

     

    Aggression

            •        Definition: Behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically.

            •        Situational Influences:

            •        Provocation, frustration, social exclusion.

            •        Media violence, aggressive cues (e.g., weapons).

            •        Alcohol, drugs, discomfort (e.g., heat, pain), arousal.

            •        Individual and Cultural Differences:

            •        Personality: High neuroticism, low agreeableness, anger, rumination.

            •        Cultural: Collectivist cultures show less violent crime.

            •        Sex: Men are more physically aggressive, women more relationally aggressive.

            •        Relational Aggression:

            •        Indirect harm through gossip, social exclusion, or putdowns.

     

     

    Attitudes

            •        Definition: Evaluations of people, objects, or ideas.

            •        Three Components of Attitudes:

            •        Affective: Emotional reactions.

            •        Cognitive: Beliefs and thoughts.

            •        Behavioral: Actions or observable behavior.

            •        Predicting Behavior:

            •        Attitudes are poor predictors for complex or multi-choice behaviors.

            •        Strong or salient attitudes predict behavior better.

            •        Why Do Attitudes Change?

            •        Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger):

            •        Conflict between attitudes or between attitudes and behavior causes tension.

            •        Resolution options:

            1.        Change Attitude A.

            2.        Change Behavior/Attitude B.

            3.        Introduce a new Attitude C to reconcile the conflict.

            •        Example: Believing smoking is harmful but continuing to smoke.

            •        Self-Perception Theory:

            •        People infer attitudes by observing their own behavior.

            •        Impression Management Theory:

            •        Report attitude changes to appear consistent, even if the attitude hasn’t truly changed.

     

     

    Personality

            •        Definition: An individual’s typical pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

            •        Components: Comprised of enduring traits, which influence behavior across situations (e.g., extroversion, introversion).

     

    Major Perspectives in Personality Psychology

            1.        Psychoanalytic Theory

            2.        Humanistic Theory

            3.        Behaviorism

            4.        Social-Cognitive Theory

            5.        Trait Theories (e.g., Big Five Model).

     

     

    Psychoanalytic Theory

            •        Freud’s Psychosexual Theory:

            •        Stages of Development: Libido is expressed through different body parts at each stage:

            1.        Oral Stage (Birth–1 year): Focus on oral pleasure; unmet needs à behaviors like smoking or overeating.

            2.        Anal Stage (1–3 years): Focus on control (e.g., toilet training); unmet needs à issues with orderliness or messiness.

            3.        Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Genital focus; Oedipus/Electra complex.

            4.        Latency Stage (6–12 years): Sexual instincts subside; superego develops.

            5.        Genital Stage (12+ years): Sexual maturity; unresolved earlier issues affect adulthood.

            •        Freud’s Structure of Personality:

            •        Id: Basic impulses (pleasure principle).

            •        Ego: Balances id with reality (reality principle).

            •        Superego: Moral judge based on societal rules.

            •        Defense Mechanisms: Repression, denial, projection, etc., reduce anxiety.

            •        Criticisms of Freud:

            •        Unfalsifiable, failed predictions, unrepresentative samples, flawed environmental assumptions.

     

     

    Behaviorism

            •        Focus on observable behavior; personality is shaped by learning experiences.

            •        Key Ideas:

            •        Radical Behaviorism: Behavior is determined by environmental influences, not free will.

            •        Classical and Operant Conditioning: Behavior shaped by reinforcement, punishment, and associations.

            •        Personality is the result of environmental histories, with unconscious processing playing a role.

     

    Social-Cognitive Theory

            •        Key Concepts:

            •        Observational Learning: Watching models and their reinforcement or punishment shapes behavior.

            •        Reciprocal Determinism: Personality results from the interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors.

            •        Example: Extraversion leads to social interaction, which reinforces extraverted tendencies.

            •        Shared Environment Critique: Evidence (e.g., twin studies) suggests shared environments have little impact on personality.

     

     

    Humanistic Theories

            •        Emphasize free will, self-actualization, and innate goodness.

            •        Carl Rogers:

            •        Personality comprises the organism, self-concept, and conditions of worth.

            •        Unconditional Positive Regard: Encourages growth and flourishing.

            •        Abraham Maslow:

            •        Focused on self-actualized individuals.

            •        Traits of self-actualized people: creativity, empathy, morality, and “peak experiences” (transcendent moments).

            •        Critique: Lacks systematic approach; prone to confirmation bias.

     

     

    Trait Theories

            •        Use factor analysis to describe personality structure.

            •        Big Five Model (OCEAN):

            •        Openness to Experience: Curious, imaginative.

            •        Conscientiousness: Responsible, organized.

            •        Extraversion: Social, outgoing.

            •        Agreeableness: Trusting, generous.

            •        Neuroticism: Anxious, emotionally unstable.

            •        Big Five and Behavior:

            •        High openness, agreeableness, and low neuroticism predict job performance and marital satisfaction.

            •        High conscientiousness and low neuroticism predict health and longevity.

            •        Supported cross-culturally but not universal; models like HEXACO add traits like honesty-humility.

     

     

    The Dark Side of Personality

            •        The Dark Tetrad:

            1.        Narcissism: Grandiosity, entitlement, callousness.

            2.        Machiavellianism: Manipulative, deceitful.

            3.        Psychopathy (subclinical): Impulsive, lacking empathy.

            4.        Sadism: Enjoys cruelty and suffering.

            •        Shared Features: Callousness and lack of empathy.

            •        Associated with low agreeableness, conscientiousness, and honesty-humility.

     

    Mental Illness Overview

            •        Mental Disorder: Dysfunctional patterns of cognition, emotion, and/or behavior, considered deviant in a societal/cultural context.

            •        Criteria for Mental Disorders:

            •        Statistical Rarity: Disorders are uncommon in the population.

            •        Subjective Distress: Significant emotional discomfort.

            •        Impairment: Difficulty functioning in daily life.

            •        Biological Dysfunction: Abnormal brain/physiological processes.

            •        Deviance: Behaviors outside societal norms.

            •        Family Resemblance View: Mental disorders share overlapping features but lack a single defining characteristic.

     

     

    Historical Perspectives on Mental Illness

            1.        Supernatural Theories:

            •        Causes: Evil spirits, celestial events, curses.

            2.        Somatogenic Theories:

            •        Causes: Genetics, brain abnormalities, neurochemical imbalances.

            3.        Psychogenic Theories:

            •        Causes: Trauma, learning, distorted perception.

     

    Timeline of Perspectives:

            •        Ancient Practices:

            •        Trepanation (6500 BC).

            •        Chinese Medicine: “Yin” and “Yang” imbalance.

            •        Greek/Egyptian: Humors theory (e.g., Hippocrates).

            •        Middle Ages:

            •        Demonic Model: Odd behaviors attributed to evil spirits or witchcraft.

            •        Medical Model:

            •        Asylums for treatment, often inhumane.

            •        Advocates like Phillippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix promoted humane care.

            •        Modern Era:

            •        Introduction of effective medications and deinstitutionalization.

     

     

    Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

            •        Purpose: Provides criteria for clinically recognized disorders.

            •        Features:

            •        Encourages ruling out medical causes.

            •        Includes disorder prevalence and biopsychosocial context.

            •        Recognizes diversity in culture, identity, and socioeconomic backgrounds.

            •        Criticisms:

            •        Validity of all diagnoses?

            •        Comorbidity: Overlap between disorders.

            •        Categorical vs. Dimensional Models: Disorders as distinct categories vs. part of a continuum.

            •        Medicalization of normal behaviors.

     

     

    Anxiety Disorders

            •        Definition: Emotions of tension and worry, sometimes adaptive but maladaptive in excess.

            •        Prevalence: 31% lifetime risk of meeting diagnostic criteria.

     

            1.        Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

            •        Persistent worry and tension across various life domains.

            •        Risk Factors: Female, low SES, genetic predisposition.

            2.        Panic Disorder

            •        Repeated panic attacks with fear of future attacks.

            •        Risk Factors: Female, genetic predisposition.

            3.        Phobias

            •        Specific Phobias: Fear of specific objects/situations (e.g., animals, flying).

            •        Agoraphobia: Fear of places where escape/help is difficult.

            4.        Social Anxiety Disorder

            •        Intense fear of negative evaluation in social settings.

            5.        Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

            •        Emotional disturbance following trauma.

            •        Symptoms: Flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance behaviors.

            6.        Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

            •        Obsessions: Persistent, distressing thoughts.

            •        Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors to reduce distress.

     

    Explanations:

            •        Biological: Genetic predisposition, brain differences.

            •        Learning: Conditioning and reinforcement.

            •        Adverse childhood experiences.

     

    Mood Disorders

            •        Definition: Persistent emotional states affecting behavior and cognition.

            •        Prevalence: 20% lifetime risk.

     

            1.        Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

            •        Symptoms: Low mood, loss of interest, guilt, worthlessness, suicidal ideation.

            •        Risk Factors: Female, stress, substance use, younger age.

            2.        Bipolar Disorder

            •        Cycles of depression and mania (e.g., elevated mood, risk-taking).

            •        Risk Factors: Genetic predisposition, stress, substance use.

     

    Personality Disorders

            1.        Borderline Personality Disorder

            •        Instability in mood, identity, and impulse control.

            •        Risk Factors: Genetics, childhood trauma.

            2.        Psychopathic Personality

            •        Traits: Manipulative, superficial charm, lack of empathy.

            •        Overlaps with Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD).

     

    Dissociative Disorders

            •        Definition: Disruptions in consciousness, memory, or identity.

     

            1.        Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder:

            •        Feeling detached from oneself or reality.

            2.        Dissociative Amnesia:

            •        Inability to recall traumatic/stressful events.

            3.        Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):

            •        Presence of multiple distinct identities.

     

    Schizophrenia

            •        Definition: Severe disorder characterized by loss of reality.

            •        Symptoms: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, catatonia.

            •        Risk Factors: Genetic predisposition, brain abnormalities, environmental triggers.

     

     

    Childhood Disorders

     

            1.        Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

            •        Range of symptoms affecting social interaction, communication, and behavior.

            •        Risk Factors: Genetic predisposition, maternal age, prenatal factors.

            2.        Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

            •        Symptoms: Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity.

            •        Risk Factors: Genetic predisposition, brain differences.

     

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